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Prevalence and determinants of cardiovascular disease risk factors using the WHO STEPS approach in Cochabamba, Bolivia
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology and Global Health. Biomedical and Social Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, San Simon University, Aniceto Arce Avenue, 371 Cochabamba, Bolivia.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0400-0414
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology and Global Health.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-7234-3510
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2019 (English)In: BMC Public Health, E-ISSN 1471-2458, Vol. 19, article id 786Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are considered the number one cause of death worldwide, especially in low- and middle-income countries, Bolivia included. Lack of reliable estimates of risk factor distribution can lead to delay in implementation of evidence-based interventions. However, little is known about the prevalence of risk factors in the country. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of preventable risk factors associated with CVDs and to identify the demographic and socioeconomic factors associated with them in Cochabamba, Bolivia.

Methods: A cross-sectional community-based study was conducted among youth and adults (N = 10,704) with permanent residence in Cochabamba, selected through a multistage sampling technique, from July 2015 to November 2016. An adapted version of the WHO STEPS survey was used to collect information. The prevalence of relevant behavioural risk factors and anthropometric measures were obtained. The socio-demographic variables included were age, ethnicity, level of education, occupation, place of residence, and marital status. Proportions with 95% confidence intervals were first calculated, and prevalence ratios were estimated for each CVD risk factor, both with crude and adjusted models.

Results: More than half (57.38%) were women, and the mean age was 37.89 ± 18 years. The prevalence of behavioural risk factors were: current smoking, 11.6%; current alcohol consumption, 42.76%; low consumption of fruits and vegetables, 76.73%; and low level of physical activity, 64.77%. The prevalence of overweight was 35.84%; obesity, 20.49%; waist risk or abdominal obesity, 54.13%; and raised blood pressure, 17.5%. Indigenous populations and those living in the Andean region showed in general a lower prevalence of most of the risk factors evaluated.

Conclusion: We provide the first CVD risk factor profile of people living in Cochabamba, Bolivia, using a standardized methodology. Overall, findings suggest that the prevalence of CVD risk factors in Cochabamba is high. This result highlights the need for interventions to improve early diagnosis, monitoring, management, and especially prevention of these risk factors.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BioMed Central, 2019. Vol. 19, article id 786
Keywords [en]
WHO STEPS approach, Cardiovascular risk factors, Obesity, Hypertension, Tobacco, Alcohol, Bolivia
National Category
Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-161716DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-7064-yISI: 000472845800006PubMedID: 31221119Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85067542939OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-161716DiVA, id: diva2:1340354
Funder
Sida - Swedish International Development Cooperation AgencyAvailable from: 2019-08-05 Created: 2019-08-05 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Cardiovascular risk factors in Cochabamba, Bolivia: estimating its distribution and assessing social inequalities
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Cardiovascular risk factors in Cochabamba, Bolivia: estimating its distribution and assessing social inequalities
2019 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Alternative title[sv]
Kardiovaskulär sjukdom i Cochabamba, Bolivia : påverkbara riskfaktorer och sociala ojämlikheter
Abstract [en]

Background: The increase in the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs) is considered one of the most important public health problems worldwide and especially in Latin American (LA) countries. Although the systematic surveillance of chronic diseases and their risk factors has been recommended, Bolivia has not yet implemented a national strategy to collect and monitor CVRF information. Evidence from previous studies in Bolivia and other Latin American countries has suggested that CVRFs affect women more than men and mestizos more than indigenous people. However, a more accurate and comprehensive picture of the CVRF situation and how ethnicity and gender intersect to affect CVRFs is dearly needed to support the development of health policies to improve population health and reduce inequalities.

Objective: to estimate the distribution of CVRFs and to examine intersectional in equalities in Cochabamba – Bolivia in order to provide useful information for public health practice and decision making. The specific objectives are: i) to estimate the prevalence of preventable risk factors associated with CVDs and ii) to assess and explain obesity inequalities in the intersectional spaces of ethnicity and gender.

Methods: The data collection procedure was based on the Pan-American version (V2.0) of the WHO STEPS approach adapted to the Bolivian context. Between 2015 and 2016, 10,754 individuals aged over 18 years old were surveyed. The two first stages of the STEPS approach were conducted: a) Step 1 consisted of the application of a questionnaire to collect demographic and lifestyle data; b) Step 2 involved taking measurements of height, weight, blood pressure, and waist circumference of the participants.

To achieve objective 1, the prevalence of relevant behavioural risk factors and anthropometric measures were calculated, and then odds ratios/prevalence ratios were estimated for each CVRF, both with crude and adjusted regression models. Regarding objective 2, an intersectionality approach based on the method suggested by Jackson et al. (67) was used to analyse the ethnic and gender inequalities in obesity. Gender and ethnicity information were combined to form four mutually exclusive intersectional positions: i) the dually disadvantaged group of indigenous women; ii) the dually advantaged group of mestizo men; and the singly disadvantaged groups of iii) indigenous men and iv) mestizo women. Joint and excess intersectional disparities in abdominal obesity were estimated as absolute prevalence differences between binary groups, using binomial regression models. The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition was applied to estimate the contributions of explanatory factors underlying the observed intersectional disparities.

Main findings: Our findings revealed that Cochabamba had a high prevalence of CVRFs, with significant variations among the different socio-demographic groups. Indigenous populations and those living in the Andean region showed, in general, a lower prevalence for most of the risk factors evaluated. The prevalence of behavioural risk factors were: current smoking (11.6%); current alcohol consumption (42.76%); low consumption of fruits and vegetables (76.73%); and low level of physical activity (64.77%). The prevalence of metabolic risk factors evaluated were: being overweight (35.84%); obesity (20.49%); abdominal obesity (54.13%); and raised blood pressure (17.5%). It is important to highlight that 40.7% of participants had four or more CVRFs simultaneously.

Dually and singly disadvantaged groups (indigenous women, indigenous men, and mestizo women) were less obese than the dually advantaged group (mestizomen). The joint disparity showed that the obesity prevalence was 7.26 percentage points higher in the doubly advantaged mestizo men (MM) than in the doubly disadvantaged indigenous women (IW). Mestizo men (MM) had an obesity prevalence of 4.30 percentage points higher than mestizo women (MW) and 9.18 percentage points higher than indigenous men (IM). The resulting excess intersectional disparity was 6.22 percentage points, representing -86 percentage points of the joint disparity. The lower prevalence of obesity in the doubly disadvantaged group of indigenous women (7.26 percentage points) was mainly due to ethnic differences alone. However, they had higher obesity than expected when considering both genders alone and ethnicity alone. Health behaviours were important factors in explaining the intersectional inequalities, while differences in socioeconomic and demographic factors played less important roles.

Conclusion: The prevalence of all CVRFs in Cochabamba was high, and nearly two-thirds of the population reported two or more risk factors simultaneously. The intersectional disparities illustrate that abdominal obesity is not distributed according to expected patterns of structural disadvantages in the intersectional spaces of ethnicity and gender in Bolivia. A high social advantage was related to higher rates of abdominal obesity, with health behaviours as the most important factors explaining the observed inequalities. The information generated by this study provides evidence for health policymakers at the regional level and a baseline data for department-wide action plans to carry out specific interventionsin the population and on individual levels.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå universitet, 2019. p. 85
National Category
Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-164923 (URN)9789178550999 (ISBN)
Presentation
2019-11-22, Triple Helix, universitetsledningshuset, Umeå universitet, Umeå, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2019-11-12 Created: 2019-11-05 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved
2. Cardiovascular disease prevention in Cochabamba, Bolivia: the importance of preventable risk factor distribution and inequalities for policy implementation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Cardiovascular disease prevention in Cochabamba, Bolivia: the importance of preventable risk factor distribution and inequalities for policy implementation
2023 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Background: The increase in the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs) is considered one of the most important public health problems in Latin American (LA) countries. Accordingly, an accurate and comprehensive picture of the CVRFs situation is needed to prevent CVDs and consequently support the development of health policies to improve population health and reduce health inequalities. 

Objective: To estimate the distribution of CVRFs and to examine social inequalities in these factors in Cochabamba – Bolivia to provide useful information for public health practice and decision-making. 

Methods: This thesis is based on four studies that used quantitative and qualitative methods. For sub-studies 1, 2, and 3, the data collection procedure was based on the Pan-American version (V2.0) of the WHO STEPS approach adapted to the Bolivian context. Between 2015 and 2016; 10,754 individuals aged over 18 years old were surveyed. To sub-study 1, the prevalence of relevant behavioural risk factors and anthropometric measures were calculated, and then odds ratios were estimated for each CVRFs. Regarding sub-study  2, an intersectionality approach based on the method suggested by Jackson et al. was used to analyze the ethnic and gender inequalities in obesity followed by the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to estimate the contributions of explanatory factors underlying the observed intersectional disparities. For sub-study 3, bivariate and multivariable regression analyses were carried out to analyze the association between access to CVDs healthcare and to preventive activities for CVRFs, with demographic and socioeconomic factors, and healthcare needs. Finally, to sub-study 4, in-depth interviews were conducted among 14 key informants focusing on aspects related to the implementation process of the CVDs policy. The interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis.

Main findings: Our findings revealed that Cochabamba had a high prevalence of CVRFs, with significant variations among the different socio-demographic groups. Indigenous populations and those living in the Andean region showed, in general, a lower prevalence for most of the risk factors studied. The prevalence of the metabolic risk factors were:  overweight (35.84%); obesity (20.49%); abdominal obesity (54.13%); and raised blood pressure (17.5%). It is important to highlight that 40.7% of participants had four or more CVRFs simultaneously.Dually and singly disadvantaged groups (Indigenous women, Indigenous men, and mestizo women) were less obese than the dually advantaged group (mestizo men). The joint disparity showed that the obesity prevalence was 7.26 percentage points higher in the doubly advantaged mestizo men than in the doubly disadvantaged Indigenous women. The lower prevalence of obesity in the doubly disadvantaged group of Indigenous women was mainly due to ethnic differences alone. Health behaviours were important factors in explaining the intersectional inequalities, while differences in socioeconomic and demographic factors played a less important role.The analysis also suggested a horizontal inequity in education, job status, region, and health insurance ownership regarding access to healthcare for CVDs and preventive activities for CVRFs. In the case of healthcare access, a lower probability of accessing healthcare for those with no formal education (OR=0.63; 95% CI=0.49-0.82) compared to those with higher education was found. Participation in preventive activities was significantly less among those with low educational levels, with the lowest participation observed in people with no formal education (OR=0.51; 95% CI=0.40-0.63). Individuals who were retired (OR=0.72; 95% CI=0.53-0.99), and those living in the Andean (OR=0.51; 95% CI=0.44-0.60) and Southern cone (OR=0.53; 95% CI=0.45-0.64) also displayed lower odds of participation. 

The challenges highlighted for the implementation of the CVDs policy in the Bolivian primary healthcare system were: the importance of i) local research, ii) a functional surveillance system, iii) effective leadership and coordination, iv) investments in municipal and community-level initiatives, and v) the need for health personnel capacity building. 

Conclusion: The prevalence of all CVRFs in Cochabamba was high, and nearly two-thirds of the population reported four or more risk factors simultaneously. The intersectional disparities illustrate that abdominal obesity was not distributed according to expected patterns of structural disadvantages in the intersectional spaces of ethnicity and gender in Bolivia. While vertical equity was observed in access to healthcare and in the participation of preventive activities, a horizontal inequity regarding education, region, and health insurance ownership was found. In addition, our findings highlighted five main challenges in the implementation of the CVDs policy in the Bolivian primary healthcare system; including local research; a functional surveillance system; leadership and governance; investment in municipal and community-level; and Health personnel for the implementation of CVD policy and its prevention strategies. The information generated by this study provides evidence for health policymakers at the regional level to carry out specific interventions to prevent CVDRFs both at the population and at the individual level. It is important to understand the contribution of socioeconomic factors and health needs in the process of formulating strategies that seek to reduce inequalities in access to healthcare in Cochabamba and nationally.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå University, 2023. p. 106
Series
Umeå University medical dissertations, ISSN 0346-6612 ; 2273
Keywords
Cardiovascular diseases, Cardiovascular risk factors, WHO STEPS approach, Intersectionality, Health inequality, Health Policy, Bolivia
National Category
Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-218222 (URN)978-91-8070-228-7 (ISBN)978-91-8070-227-0 (ISBN)
Public defence
2024-01-19, ULED Triple Helix, Universitetsledningshuset, plan 3, Umeå, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

För att delta digitalt via Zoom:  

Meeting URL: https://umu.zoom.us/j/64331950332 Passcode: 643 3195 0332

Available from: 2023-12-21 Created: 2023-12-19 Last updated: 2025-02-20Bibliographically approved

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