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Training and hormones in physically active women: with and without oral contraceptive use
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sports medicine.
2016 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Background: The number of women participating in sports has increased dramatically, though research in sports are often performed on men. Physical exercise is known to increase physical performance and improve well-being. Although exercise has beneficial health effects for most of the women, it is known that strenuous exercise may also have negative health consequences. Common are menstrual dysfunctions and the medical effects of a long-standing amenorrhea are serious. Moreover, strenuous exercise without adequate recovery may lead to overreaching (OR) /overtraining syndrome (OTS). An improved muscle strength are of great importance in many sports, hence an increased understanding on how to generate optimal strength training programs in women without negative side effects are essential. The aims of this thesis were to investigate the effects on strength and power of high frequency periodised leg resistance training to evaluate a training regime and moreover to investigate if the training was well accepted and without potential exercise-related negative consequences. Moreover, to provide normative data on oxytocin and cortisol to elucidate if these hormones could be one diagnostic marker in combination with others to monitor and diagnose female athletes that may be at risk to develop OR/OTS.

Methods: Fifty-nine women, participated in the four month intervention study. Two groups performed high frequency leg resistance training for two weeks of each menstrual/oral contraceptive (OC) cycle. The remaining part of the cycle they performed the leg training once a week. Group 1, trained with high frequency (5 times·w-1) during the first two weeks of each cycle, and group 2, during the last two weeks of each cycle. A control group performed regular (3 times·w-1) leg resistance training. Another 33 women participated in the observational study. The OC users and non-users, were followed over a nine-month period with monthly blood sampling of oxytocin and cortisol, and the Profile of Mood State (POMS) as a subjective measure of OR/OTS.

Results: The women who performed high frequency leg resistance training, 5 times·w-1, during the first two weeks of each cycle showed significant increase in jump height, peak torque values in hamstrings, increased lean body mass of the legs, and their experiences of the training were positive. These results were not found when the periodised training was performed during the last two weeks of each cycle. In the control group an increase in jump height, and peak torque (left hamstring) was observed. There were no evident differences in the training effects between women with or without OC use. Moreover, no exercise-related negative consequences were detected in any of the three groups. The women in the observational study showed seasonal variations in oxytocin and cortisol, with different pattern in OC users to non-users. No convincing relationships to POMS were found. 

Conclusions: The high frequency periodised leg resistance training during the first two weeks of the cycle is more beneficial to optimize resistance training, than the last two weeks. The high frequency periodised leg resistance training was not associated with exercise-related negative consequences and was well accepted when performed during the first two weeks of each cycle. Due to seasonality and impact of OC use, oxytocin and cortisol are not suggested to be optimal, diagnostic markers alone/in combination with others, to detect OR/OTS in physically active women.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå universitet , 2016. , p. 82
Series
Umeå University medical dissertations, ISSN 0346-6612 ; 1820
Keywords [en]
female athletes, hormones, menstrual cycle, oral contraceptive cycle, resistance training, muscle strength, power, body composition, female athlete triad, overreaching, overtraining syndrome
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-124842ISBN: 978-91-7601-516-2 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-124842DiVA, id: diva2:955835
Public defence
2016-09-23, Vårdvetarhuset, Aulan, Umeå, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2016-09-02 Created: 2016-08-26 Last updated: 2018-06-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Effects on power, strength and lean body mass of menstrual/oral contraceptive cycle based resistance training
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Effects on power, strength and lean body mass of menstrual/oral contraceptive cycle based resistance training
2017 (English)In: Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, ISSN 0022-4707, E-ISSN 1827-1928, Vol. 57, no 1-2, p. 43-52Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of menstrual and oral contraceptive cycle on a high frequency periodized leg resistance training in trained women. METHODS: Two groups performed high frequency leg resistance training for two weeks of each menstrual/oral contraceptive cycle for four months. The remaining part of the cycle they performed the leg training once a week. Group 1 (N.=19) trained with high frequency (5 times-w-') during the first two weeks of each cycle, and group 2 (N.=19) during the last two weeks of each cycle. A control group (N.=21) performed regurlar (3 times.w(-1)) leg resistance training for four months. RESULTS: Significant increase in squat and countermovement jump, and peak torque values in hamstrings for group 1 were observed, but not in group 2. In the control group an increase in squat and countermovement jump, and peak torque (only left hamstring) was also observed. There was also a significant increase in lean body mass of the legs in group 1 only. There were no evident differences in the training effects between women with or without oral contraceptive. CONCLUSIONS: The high frequency periodized leg resistance training during the first two weeks of the menstrual cycle is more beneficial to optimize training than in the last two weeks. Resistance training during the first two weeks of the menstrual cycle even resulted in a larger gain of lean body mass than regular training.

Keywords
Women, Muscle strength, Resistance training, Menstrual cycle
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-112551 (URN)10.23736/S0022-4707.16.05848-5 (DOI)000398129700006 ()26558833 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85013055713 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2015-12-10 Created: 2015-12-10 Last updated: 2023-03-24Bibliographically approved
2. Increasing training load without risking the female athlete triad: menstrual cycle based periodized training may be an answer?
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Increasing training load without risking the female athlete triad: menstrual cycle based periodized training may be an answer?
2017 (English)In: Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, ISSN 0022-4707, E-ISSN 1827-1928, Vol. 57, no 11, p. 1519-1525Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BACKGROUND: An improved muscle strength are of great importance in many sports, hence an increased understanding on how to generate optimal strength training programs in women without negative side effects that may lead to the female athlete triad are essential. The purpose of this study was to investigate potential negative effects of high frequency periodized menstrual/OC cycle based leg resistance training on components in the female athlete triad.

METHODS: Fifty-nine women, with experience of resistance training and with regular menstrual/OC cycles were included in the analyses. The participants were randomly assigned a training program consisted of high frequency leg resistance training, periodized to the first two weeks (group 1) or the last two weeks (group 2) of each cycle, or to a control group performing regular training, during four consecutive menstrual/OC cycles. The main analysis was the pre-to-post change of sex and growth hormones, cortisol, total body fat mass, bone mineral density in the spine. We further examined the participants’ own experience of the training programs.

RESULTS: No significant negative impact on sex and growth hormones, cortisol, total body fat mass and bone mineral density in the spine, was detected in any of the groups. Moreover, the women in group 1 experienced their training program as positive.

CONCLUSIONS: The high frequency periodized leg resistance training was not associated with exercise-related negative consequences on components in the female athlete triad. Moreover, the training was well accepted when performed during the first two weeks of each cycle.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Edizioni Minerva Medica, 2017
Keywords
Female athlete triad syndrome, estrogens, testosterone, hydrocortisone, growth hormone, bone density
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-120381 (URN)10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06444-6 (DOI)000431425400017 ()27167713 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85029348299 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2016-05-16 Created: 2016-05-16 Last updated: 2023-03-23Bibliographically approved
3. Mood and oxytocin blood levels in physically active women with and without oral contraceptive use in relation to seasonal daylight variation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Mood and oxytocin blood levels in physically active women with and without oral contraceptive use in relation to seasonal daylight variation
2017 (English)In: International Journal of Sports and Exercise Medicine, ISSN 2469-5718, Vol. 3, no 3, article id 058Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background

The aim is to provide normative data on oxytocin, and its seasonality in users and non-users of Oral Contraceptives (OC) in physically active women. Further, to elucidate the relationship between Oxytocin and Profile of Mood States (POMS) for further research to see if Oxytocin can be used as an additional diagnostic marker to detect overreaching/overtraining syndrome or other stress disorders.

Methods

Forty-eight women (18-35 years old), 19 with and 29 without OC use, physically active at least 3 times a week at > 13 on the Borg RPE scale. Thirty-three subjects completed the study, 15 with and 18 without OC use. The number of hours from sunrise to sunset averaged 10 h during the autumn, 6 h during the winter, and 15 h during the spring. Once a month, blood samples were taken, weight and the day of menstrual cycle was documented, the POMS questionnaire was filled out as well as a personal daily logbook recording exercise type, duration, and intensity. To evaluate seasonal variations in Oxytocin and Global POMS, repeated measures analysis of variance was used.

Results

A significant seasonal variation in Oxytocin levels within the groups with and without OC respectively and significant differences in Oxytocin levels between the groups at diverse seasons were found. No significant difference in seasonal variation of Global POMS within the groups and no significant differences in levels of Global POMS between the groups with and without OC were seen. Furthermore, no clear relationship between Oxytocin, Global POMS scores, and hours of daylight respectively were detected.

Conclusions

Due to seasonality, impact of OC use on oxytocin levels, methodological considerations, and no convincing relationship to Global POMS, oxytocin is not suggested to be an optimal, diagnostic marker alone or in combination with others to detect overreaching and overtraining syndrome in physically active women.

Keywords
Oxytocin, Profile of Mood State, oral contraceptive use, females, hormone, seasonal variation, daylight
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Research subject
Physiology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-124822 (URN)10.23937/2469-5718/1510058 (DOI)
Available from: 2016-08-26 Created: 2016-08-26 Last updated: 2018-06-07Bibliographically approved
4. Impact of Season and Oral Contraceptive use on Cortisol Levelsin Physically Active Women
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Impact of Season and Oral Contraceptive use on Cortisol Levelsin Physically Active Women
2016 (English)In: Journal of Exercise, Sports & Orthopedics, ISSN 2374-6904, Vol. 3, no 2Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

When athletes optimize their physical performance, an imbalance could occur between the strain of training, time for recovery and the athlete’s individual tolerance of stress that could lead to overreaching and overtraining syndrome. Cortisol has been suggested to be a biological, diagnostic marker to detect overreaching and overtraining syndrome, since it is thought to indicate stress. This study aimed to provide normative data on cortisol levels, hence investigate seasonality and impact of oral contraceptive use to elucidate if cortisol could be used as a diagnostic marker to detect overreaching and overtraining syndrome in female athletes. The women, divided in two groups, oral contraceptive users (n = 15) and non-users (n = 18), were followed over a nine-month period with monthly blood sampling for cortisol testing and a Profile of Mood State questionnaire (POMS) as a subjective measure of overreaching and overtraining syndrome.Findings indicated seasonal variations in cortisol levels, with different pattern in oral contraceptive users to non-users and moreover, higher cortisol levels in users to nonusers irrespective of season. No differences in seasonal variation in Global POMS score within the groups and no differences in Global POMS score between the groups were detected. Due to seasonality, impact of oral contraceptive use on cortisol levels, methodological considerations and standardization, as well as due to no convincing relationship to Global POMS score, cortisol is not suggested to be an optimal biological, diagnostic marker to detect overreaching and overtraining syndrome in physically active women.

Keywords
hormones, overreaching, overtraining syndrome, female athletes, Profile of Mood State
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Research subject
Physiology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-124841 (URN)10.15226/2374-6904/3/2/00150 (DOI)
Available from: 2016-08-26 Created: 2016-08-26 Last updated: 2022-03-15Bibliographically approved

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Wikström-Frisén, Lisbeth

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