Background: Women with an increased hereditary risk of breast cancer can undergo risk-reducing prophylactic mastectomy. However, there is a balance between how much subcutaneous tissue should be resected to achieve maximal reduction of glandular tissue, while leaving viable skin flaps.
Methods: Forty-five women previously operated with prophylactic mastectomy underwent magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) and ultrasound (US) to investigate the correlation between skin flap thickness and residual glandular tissue. Residual glandular tissue was documented as being present or not present, but not quantified, as the amount of residual glandular tissue in many cases was considered too small to make reliable volume quantifications with available tools. Since a mastectomy skin flap thickness of 5 mm is discussed as an oncologically safe thickness in the literature, this was used as a cut-off.
Results: Following prophylactic mastectomy, residual glandular tissue was detected in 39.3% of all breasts and 27.9% of all the breast quadrants examined by MRT, and 44.1% of all breasts and 21.7% of all the breast quadrants examined by US. Residual glandular tissue was detected in 6.9% of the quadrants in skin flaps ≤ 5 mm and in 37.5% of the quadrants in skin flaps > 5 mm (OR 3.07; CI = 1.41–6.67; p = 0.005). Furthermore, residual glandular tissue increased significantly already when the skin flap thickness exceeded 7 mm.
Conclusions: This study highlights that complete removal of glandular breast tissue during a mastectomy is difficult and suggests that this is an unattainable goal. We demonstrate that residual glandular tissue is significantly higher in skin flaps > 5 mm in comparison to skin flaps ≤ 5 mm, and that residual glandular tissue increases significantly already when the flap thickness exceeds 7 mm.
Latissimus dorsi harvest and axillary surgery can affect shoulder function. The effect of autologous latissimus dorsi flap (ALD) breast reconstruction and donor site quilting have been inadequately studied. A cohort of ALD flap breast reconstruction patients were assessed pre-operatively and at eight post-operative time-points (up to 3 years after reconstruction) using the self-administered Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) outcome measure, for which validated normative data is available. Patients with incidental shoulder conditions and bilateral reconstructions were excluded. This was a prospective, observational study with blinded data interpretation: 58 patients, 22 of whom had donor site quilting, were assessed. Groups were compatible demographically, in breast care management and in pre-operative DASH score (quilted 6.5, non-quilted 6.4; P = 0.98). Scores were significantly increased at initial post-operative clinic review (mean 49, SD19; P < 0.001), 6 week (29, SD20; P < 0.001), and 3 month (19, SD19; P < 0.01), thereafter remaining at a plateau value of similar to 15 (P > 0.05). Seroma incidence was reduced in the quilted group (5% vs 70%). A strong, significant correlation was found between 3 month DASH score and long term function (r = 0.66, P < 0.0003); patients with DASH > 20 fare significantly worse in the long-term (mean 20 point increase, SD5.0, P < 0.001). Higher post-operative DASH scores correlated significantly with pre-operative DASH (r = 0.58) and BMI (r = 0.36). Adjuvant therapy had no effect on shoulder function. Axillary dissection had a weak correlation with a higher DASH score, but only at the 3-month post-operative time-point (r = 0.32, P = 0.03). ALD flap breast reconstruction generally results in a functionally insignificant increase (6.5 points) in longterm DASH score, although a small subset of patients do develop longterm impairment, and quilting does not appear to inhibit shoulder function. (C) 2009 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons.
Introduction: Since the first successful arm replantation reported by Malt and McKhann in 1962, developments and refinements to upper extremity replantation techniques have led to higher success rates with better functional outcomes. One of the most important determinants of a successful macroreplantation is the ischaemic time of the amputated part, as irreversible muscle necrosis begins after 6 hours of warm ischaemia. With major trauma and plastic surgery units usually covering a wide geographical area, it is often difficult to ensure patient injury to revascularization time is less than 6 hours. In 1981, Nunley et al described the temporary catheter perfusion technique in upper limb replantation surgery to reduce ischaemia time without any significant complications. When used in appropriate cases this technique can reduce complication rates in upper limb replantation surgeries. Material and methods: Temporary catheter first perfusion was used in a hand replantation after 6 hours of warm ischaemia, with preservation of the intrinsic muscles, as evidenced by return of function. The technique used is described, along with relevant literature. Results: Temporary catheter perfusion allowed early reperfusion of the amputated hand, improving the chance of intrinsic muscle preservation despite delayed presentation. It allowed better wound evaluation and debridement, and facilitated better bone stabilisation prior to vascular repair. Conclusion: Temporary catheter perfusion is well described in proximal upper limb replantation procedures. This case shows that it is also a useful adjunct for hand replantation, particularly when the patient presents with a critical duration of warm ischaemia. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons.
The development of microsurgery has most recently been focused upon the evolution of perforator flaps, with the aim of minimising donor site morbidity, and avoiding the transfer of functionally unnecessary tissues. The vascular basis of perforator flaps also facilitates radical primary thinning prior to flap transfer, when appropriate. Based upon initial clinical observations, cadaveric, and radiological studies, we describe a new, thin, perforator flap based upon the circumflex scapular artery (CSA). A perforator vessel was found to arise within 1.5cm of the CSA bifurcation (arising from the main trunk, or the descending branch). The perforator arborises into the sub-dermal vascular plexus of the dorsal scapular skin, permitting the elevation and primary thinning of a skin flap. This thin flap has been employed in a series of five clinical cases to reconstruct defects of the axilla (two cases of hidradenitis suppurativa; pedicled transfers), and upper limb (one sarcoma, one brachial to radial artery flowthrough revascularisation plus antecubital fossa reconstruction, and one hand reconstruction with a chimeric flap incorporating vascularised bone, fascia, and thin skin flaps; free tissue transfers). No intramuscular perforator dissection is required; pedicle length is 8-10cm and vessel diameter 2-4mm. There was no significant peri-operative complication or flap failure, all donor sites were closed primarily, patient satisfaction was high, and initial reconstructive aims were achieved in all cases. Surgical technique, and the vascular basis of the flap are described. The thin circumflex scapular artery perforator flap requires no intramuscular dissection yet provides high quality skin (whose characteristics can be varied by orientation of the skin paddle), and multiple chimeric options. The donor site is relatively hair-free, has favourable cosmesis and no known functional morbidity. This flap represents a promising addition to the existing range of perforator flaps.
AIM: The aim of this study was to evaluate early complications following retromuscular mesh repair with those after dual layer suture of the anterior rectus sheath in a randomised controlled clinical trial for abdominal rectus muscle diastasis (ARD).
METHODS: Patients with an ARD wider than 3 cm and clinical symptoms related to the ARD were included in a prospective randomised study. They were assigned to either retromuscular inset of a lightweight polypropylene mesh or to dual closure of the anterior rectus fascia using Quill self-locking technology. All patients completed a validated questionnaire for pain assessment (Ventral Hernia Pain Questionnaire, VHPQ) and for quality of life (SF36) prior to and 3 months after surgery.
RESULTS: The most frequently seen adverse event was minor wound infection. Of the patients, 14/57 had a superficial wound infection; five related to Quill and nine to mesh repair. No deep wound infections were reported. Patient rating for subjective muscular improvement postoperatively was better in the mesh technique group with a mean of 6.9 (range 0-10) compared to a mean of 4.8 (range 0-10) in the Quill group (p=0.01). The pre- and post-operative SF36 scores improved in both groups.
CONCLUSIONS: There was no significant difference between the two surgical techniques in terms of early complications and perceived pain at the 3-month follow-up. Both techniques may be considered equally reliable for ARD repair in terms of adverse outcomes during the early postoperative phase, even though patients operated with a mesh experienced better improvement in muscular strength.
Neurocutaneous flaps have been demonstrated to be a reliable option in different groups of patients but it remains unclear if distally-based sural flaps can be safety used in paraplegic patients because they suffer from significant nervous system alterations. The aim of this proof-of-concept study is to demonstrate that these flaps are reliable in paraplegic patients. We prospectively analysed a group (n = 6) of paraplegic patients who underwent reversed sural flap surgery for ulcers on the lateral malleolus. Measurement of area and photographic documentation techniques have been employed to quantify the defect area. Sural nerve biopsies have been analysed histologically with several different staining techniques to assess the neurovascular network and the myelinisation of the nerve. The patients showed uneventful wound heating, except one case that suffered a partial flap necrosis that heated by secondary intention. Histologic analysis revealed an intact neurovascular network and myelinated nerve fibres. In this small series of paraplegic patients that underwent a distally-based sural flap, the complication rate was low, with only one case of superficial partial necrosis demonstrating the reliability and safety of the flap in this subset of patients. Histologic evaluation of sural. nerve biopsies revealed an almost normal morphology. A possible explanation of this phenomenon is that the dorsal root ganglia remain intact in paraplegic patients and can preserve neural characteristics in the peripheral sensory nerve system.
Scar tissues were collected from patients with keloids, hypertrophic scars and mature scars. Normal skin was obtained from healthy individuals. Clinical attributes were used to select which tissue to obtain but the distribution of the specific hyaluronan (HA) staining was then used for the definite classification of the various scar types. Light microscopic and ultrastructural analyses were performed with an HA-binding probe, antibodies for collagen I and III and staining for mast cells. Ultrastructural studies of keloids revealed an altered collagen structure in the dermal layers, with an abundance of collagen fibres of similar diameter in both the reticular dermis (RD) and the papillary dermis (PD) compared to normal skin. Furthermore, the keloids displayed epidermal changes, which involved the basement membrane (BM), with fewer hemidesmosomes and an altered shape of desmosomes in the entire enlarged spinous layer. The frequency of mast cells found in keloids was lower than in other scar tissues and normal skin. These alterations in epidermis could influence the hydrodynamic and cell regulatory properties of the wounded skin with impaired function and insufficient regulative capacity to hinder the ever-growing collagen tissue that is characteristic for keloids. (C) 2014 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction: A Morel-Lavallee lesion can occur after a closed degloving injury. It is a persistent seroma that may be resistant to conservative methods of treatment such as percutaneous drainage and compression therapy. We present a novel, successful method of surgical treatment. Case report: A 70 year-old lady developed a 30 x 15 cm rapidly enlarging right medial thigh/knee swelling after being hit by a car. Conservative treatments failed, sarcoma was excluded, and the diagnosis confirmed, by MR imaging and cytology prior to referral. The lesion was excised, and blue dye lymphatic mapping used to identify and ligate feeding lymphatic vessels. The cavity was then closed using fibrin sealant spray and resorbable quilting sutures. A pressure garment was fitted. Result: The wound healed without complication, with no recurrence at six months. The patient returned to normal activities without pressure garments. Conclusion: This method provides a novel, successful approach to the surgical treatment of a chronic Morel-Lavallee lesion. (c) 2012 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
There are several reasons why end-to-side nerve coaptation has not been widely adopted clinically. Among these are the putative damage inflicted on the donor nerve and the variable quality of the regeneration in the recipient nerve. So far experiments on end-to-side nerve repair have been short term and mostly carried out on rats. This long-term study of end-to-side nerve repair of ulnar to median and median to ulnar nerve was performed using adult nonhuman primates. Eleven nerve repairs were studied at different time points. Eighteen, 22, 33 and 57 months after surgery a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the donor nerve and regenerating nerve revealed variable levels of percentage axonal regeneration compared with matched controls (1.4%-136%). Morphological evidence of donor nerve damage was identified distal to the coaptation site in four of the 11 cases, and in these cases the best axonal regeneration in the corresponding recipient nerves was observed. This donor nerve damage could neither be demonstrated in terms of a decrease in axon counts distal to the coaptation nor as donor target organ denervation. Recipient target organ regeneration like the axonal regeneration varied, with evidence of motor regeneration in eight out of 11 cases and sensory regeneration, as measured by percentage innervation density compared with matched controls, varied from 12.5% to 49%. Results from the present study demonstrate that the end-to-side coaptation technique in the nonhuman primate does not give predictable results. In general the motor recovery appeared better than the sensory and in those cases where donor nerve damage was observed there was better motor and sensory regeneration overall than in the remaining cases.
Introduction: Water jet-assisted liposuction has gained popularity due to favourable fat grafting outcomes. In this study, we compared stem cells obtained from fat isolated with manual or the water jet-assisted procedure.
Methods: Liposuction of abdominal fat was performed using the two methods on each donor (n = 10). Aspirate samples were collagenase digested and the isolated cells seeded in vitro prior to proliferation, adipogenic differentiation and angiogenic activity analyses.
Results: Cells from either procedure proliferated at similar rates and exhibited a similar colony-forming ability. The cells expressed stem cell markers CD73, CD90 and CD105. In the water jet cell preparations, there were higher numbers of cells expressing CD146. Robust adipogenic differentiation was observed in cultures expanded from both manual and water jet lipoaspirates. Gene analysis showed higher expression of the adipocyte markers aP2 and GLUT4 in the adipocyte-differentiated water jet cell preparations, and ELISA indicated increased secretion of adiponectin from these cells. Both cell groups expressed vasculogenic factors and the water jet cells promoted the highest levels of in vitro angiogenesis. Given these positive results, we further characterised the water jet cells when prepared using an automated closed cell processing unit, the Sepax-2 system (Cytiva). The growth and stem cell properties of the Sepax-processed cells were similar to the standard centrifugation protocol, but there was evidence for greater adipogenic differentiation in the Sepax-processed cells.
Conclusions: Water jet lipoaspirates yield cells with high adipogenic potential and angiogenic activity, which may be beneficial for use in cell-assisted lipotransfers.
Background: Although autologous fat grafting is considered a successful method for the management of contour deformities, the fat graft could potentially induce cancer reappearance by fueling dormant breast cancer cells. Our aim was to characterize the role of adipose-derived stem cells on active and dormant breast cancer cell growth.
Methods: Cobalt chloride was used to induce dormancy in MCF-7 cancer cells. Proliferation of active and dormant cancer cells was determined in the presence of adipose-derived stem cells. A proteome array was used to detect cancer-related protein expression in the cell-conditioned medium. The migration of cancer cells was measured in response to conditioned medium from the adipose-derived stem cells.
Results: The adipose-derived stem cells showed variable effects on active MCF-7 cells growth and inhibited MCF-7 proliferation after the withdrawal of cobalt chloride. Of the 84 different proteins measured in the conditioned medium, only tenascin-C was differentially expressed in the co-cultures. MCF-7 cells alone did not express tenascin-C, whereas co-cultures between MCF-7 and adipose-derived stem cells expressed more tenascin-C versus adipose-derived stem cells alone. The conditioned medium from co-cultures significantly increased the migration of the cancer cells.
Conclusions: Adipose-derived stem cells themselves neither increased the growth or migration of cancer cells, suggesting that autologous fat grafting may be oncologically safe if reconstruction is postponed until there is no evidence of active disease. However, interactions between adipose-derived stem cells and MCF-7 cancer cells could potentially lead to the production of factors, which further promote cancer cell migration.
Peripheral nerve injuries are often associated with loss of nerve tissue and require autologous nerve grafts to provide a physical substrate for axonal growth. Biosynthetic neural conduits could be an alternative treatment strategy in such injuries. The present study investigates the long-term effects of a tubular fibrin conduit on neuronal regeneration, axonal sprouting and recovery of muscle weight following peripheral nerve injury and repair in adult rats. Sciatic axotomy was performed proximally in the thigh to create a 10-mm gap between the nerve stumps. The injury gap was bridged by using a 14-mm-long fibrin glue conduit, entubulating 2mm of the nerve stump at each end. A reversed autologous nerve graft was used as a control. The regenerative response from sensory and motor neurones was evaluated following retrograde labelling with Fast Blue fluorescent tracer. In control experiments, at 16 weeks following peripheral nerve grafting, 5184 (+/-574 standard error of mean (SEM)) sensory dorsal root ganglion neurones and 1001 (+/-37 SEM) spinal motor neurones regenerated across the distal nerve-graft interface. The fibrin conduit promoted regeneration of 60% of sensory neurones and 52% of motor neurones when compared to the control group. The total number of myelinated axons in the distal nerve stump in the fibrin-conduit group reached 86% of the control and the weight of gastrocnemius and soleus muscles recovered to 82% and 89% of the controls, respectively. The present results suggest that a tubular fibrin conduit can be used to promote neuronal regeneration following peripheral nerve injury.
Introduction: Speech in children with cleft palate can be affected by velopharyngeal dysfunction, which persists after primary palate repair. The incidence of surgery to correct velopharyngeal dysfunction in this patient group has previously been reported as 2.6–37%. We aimed to investigate the incidence of velopharyngeal dysfunction surgery in Swedish children with cleft palate and to examine potential associations of independent variables with this incidence.
Methods: In this cohort study, we analysed data from the Swedish cleft lip and palate quality registry for 1093 children with cleft palate with or without cleft lip. Kaplan–Meier analysis was used to estimate the risk of having velopharyngeal dysfunction surgery. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the associated effect of cleft subtype, additional diagnoses, gender, and age at and number of stages for primary palate repair on the primary outcome.
Results: The risk of having velopharyngeal dysfunction surgery was 25.6%. Complete primary palate repair after the age of 18 months or in more than one stage was associated with a higher risk, but it could not be determined which of these was the more significant factor. Cleft soft palate was associated with a significantly lower risk than other cleft subtypes.
Conclusions: Primary palate repair at a higher age or in more than one stage may increase the risk of having velopharyngeal dysfunction surgery. Further analysis of potential unknown confounding factors and the association between the incidence of velopharyngeal dysfunction and surgery to correct this condition is needed.
Although toe-to-hand transfer has a defined role in the management of congenital hand deformities, it remains unclear how well children integrate the transferred digits into physiological grasping. We analysed fingertip forces in the precision grip of 13 patients when lifting a test object more than three years after free toe transfer for absent or hypoplastic digits. Clinically, most patients showed normal sensibility of transferred digits, but active motion and pinch strength were limited as compared to the normal hand. For the control of fingertip forces, two key features of the normal two-digit opposition grip were seen in all operated hands: adaptation of grip force to object weight and parallel coordination of lift and grip forces. These physiological grasping strategies developed independently of the patients' age at the time of operation, which ranged from one to 13 years. In four patients, we observed increased tangential load forces with the operated hand due to misalignments in the application of fingertips on the grasp surfaces. Such forces lead to increased grip force requirements on both fingers that may overload transferred digits with limited motor function. The need for optimal alignment of the grip axis during toe-transfer surgery is emphasised.
Protection of sensory neurons after peripheral nerve injury is clinically crucial since inadequate sensory recovery is seriously affected by the death of up to 40% of sensory neurons. Immediate acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) treatment eliminates this cell loss, but may not always be clinically feasible, hence we studied the effect of delaying the initiation of ALCAR treatment. Five groups of rats (n=5 per group) underwent unilateral sciatic nerve axotomy. ALCAR treatment (50 mg/kg/day) was initiated immediately, or after delays of 6 h, 24 h or 7 days after injury. A sham-treated group served as control. L4 and L5 dorsal root ganglia were harvested bilaterally 2 weeks after injury and stereological sensory neuron counts were obtained. Immediate sham treatment provided no neuroprotection (25% loss). Cell loss was eliminated when ALCAR was commenced within
Peripheral nerve injury frequently results in functional morbidity since standard management fails to adequately address many of the neurobiological hurdles to optimal regeneration. Neuronal survival and regeneration are neurotrophin dependent and require increased aerobic capacity. Acetyl-l-carnitine (ALCAR) facilitates this need and prevents neuronal loss. ALCAR is clinically safe and is shown here to significantly improve nerve regeneration and target organ reinnervation. Two groups of five rats underwent sciatic nerve division followed by immediate repair. One group received parenteral ALCAR (50mg/kg/day) from time of operation until termination at 12 weeks. A 'sham treatment' group received normal saline. A third group was left unoperated and did not receive any treatment. A segment of nerve was harvested between 5mm proximal and 10mm distal to the repair in operated groups, and at the corresponding level in the unoperated group. Mean axonal count in normal, non-axotomised nerve was 14,720 (SD 2378). That of the saline group (17,217 SD 1808) was not significantly different from normal nerve (P=0.0985). Mean number of myelinated axons in the ALCAR group (24,460 SD 3750) was significantly greater than both sham group (P<0.01) and normal nerve (P=0.0012). Mean myelin thickness in the saline treated group (0.408mum SD 0.067mum) was less than normal nerve (0.770mum SD 0.143mum) (P<0.001). Mean myelin thickness in the ALCAR group (0.627mum SD 0.052mum) was greater than the sham (saline) group (P<0.01) and not statistically different from normal nerve (P=0.07). ALCAR increased dermal PGP9.5 staining by 210% compared to sham treatment (P<0.0001) and significantly reduced the mean percentage weight loss in gastrocnemius muscle (ALCAR group 0.203% vs. 0.312% in sham group P=0.015). ALCAR not only increases the number of regenerating nerve fibres but also morphologically improves the quality of regeneration and target organ reinnervation. Adjuvant ALCAR treatment may improve both sensory and motor outcomes and merits further investigation.