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  • 1. Al Nimer, Faiez
    et al.
    Elliott, Christina
    Bergman, Joakim
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Khademi, Mohsen
    Dring, Ann M
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Aeinehband, Shahin
    Bergenheim, Tommy
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Christensen, Jeppe Romme
    Sellebjerg, Finn
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Linington, Christopher
    Olsson, Tomas
    Piehl, Fredrik
    Lipocalin-2 is increased in progressive multiple sclerosis and inhibits remyelination2016In: Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation, E-ISSN 2332-7812, Vol. 3, no 1, article id e191Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Objective: We aimed to examine the regulation of lipocalin-2 (LCN2) in multiple sclerosis (MS) and its potential functional relevance with regard to myelination and neurodegeneration. Methods: We determined LCN2 levels in 3 different studies: (1) in CSF and plasma from a case-control study comparing patients with MS (n = 147) with controls (n = 50) and patients with relapsing-remitting MS (n = 75) with patients with progressive MS (n = 72); (2) in CSF and brain tissue microdialysates from a case series of 7 patients with progressive MS; and (3) in CSF at baseline and 60 weeks after natalizumab treatment in a cohort study of 17 patients with progressive MS. Correlation to neurofilament light, a marker of neuroaxonal injury, was tested. The effect of LCN2 on myelination and neurodegeneration was studied in a rat in vitro neuroglial cell coculture model. Results: Intrathecal production of LCN2 was increased predominantly in patients with progressive MS (p < 0.005 vs relapsing-remitting MS) and displayed a positive correlation to neurofilament light (p = 0.005). Levels of LCN2 in brain microdialysates were severalfold higher than in the CSF, suggesting local production in progressive MS. Treatment with natalizumab in progressive MS reduced LCN2 levels an average of 13% (p < 0.0001). LCN2 was found to inhibit remyelination in a dose-dependent manner in vitro. Conclusions: LCN2 production is predominantly increased in progressive MS. Although this moderate increase does not support the use of LCN2 as a biomarker, the correlation to neurofilament light and the inhibitory effect on remyelination suggest that LCN2 might contribute to neurodegeneration through myelination-dependent pathways.

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  • 2. Al Nimer, Faiez
    et al.
    Thelin, Eric
    Nystrom, Harriet
    Dring, Ann M.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Piehl, Fredrik
    Nelson, David W.
    Bellander, Bo-Michael
    Comparative Assessment of the Prognostic Value of Biomarkers in Traumatic Brain Injury Reveals an Independent Role for Serum Levels of Neurofilament Light2015In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 10, no 7, article id e0132177Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common cause of death and disability, worldwide. Early determination of injury severity is essential to improve care. Neurofilament light (NF-L) has been introduced as a marker of neuroaxonal injury in neuroinflammatory/-degenerative diseases. In this study we determined the predictive power of serum (s-) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF-) NF-L levels towards outcome, and explored their potential correlation to diffuse axonal injury (DAI). A total of 182 patients suffering from TBI admitted to the neurointensive care unit at a level 1 trauma center were included. S-NF-L levels were acquired, together with S100B and neuron-specific enolase (NSE). CSF-NF-L was measured in a subcohort (n = 84) with ventriculostomies. Clinical and neuro-radiological parameters, including computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging, were included in the analyses. Outcome was assessed 6 to 12 months after injury using the Glasgow Outcome Score (1-5). In univariate proportional odds analyses mean s-NF-L, -S100B and -NSE levels presented a pseudo-R-2 Nagelkerke of 0.062, 0.214 and 0.074 in correlation to outcome, respectively. In a multivariate analysis, in addition to a model including core parameters (pseudo-R-2 0.33 towards outcome; Age, Glasgow Coma Scale, pupil response, Stockholm CT score, abbreviated injury severity score, S100B), S-NF-L yielded an extra 0.023 pseudo-R-2 and a significantly better model (p = 0.006) No correlation between DAI or CT assessed-intracranial damage and NF-L was found. Our study thus demonstrates that SNF-L correlates to TBI outcome, even if used in models with S100B, indicating an independent contribution to the prediction, perhaps by reflecting different pathophysiological processes, not possible to monitor using conventional neuroradiology. Although we did not find a predictive value of NF-L for DAI, this cannot be completely excluded. We suggest further

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  • 3.
    Bergman, J.
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Wuolikainen, Anna
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Gilthorpe, Jonathan
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Bergenheim, Tommy
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience. Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
    Cytokine levels in interstitial brain fluid in progressive multiple sclerosis measured via intracerebral microdialysis2016In: Multiple Sclerosis Journal, ISSN 1352-4585, E-ISSN 1477-0970, Vol. 22, p. 511-511Article in journal (Refereed)
  • 4.
    Bergman, Joakim
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Zetterberg, Henrik
    Blennow, Kaj
    Norgren, Niklas
    Gilthorpe, Jonathan
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Bergenheim, Tommy
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Danderyd Hospital AB, Stockholm, Sweden..
    Neurofilament light in CSF and serum is a sensitive marker for axonal white matter injury in MS2016In: Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation, E-ISSN 2332-7812, Vol. 3, no 5, article id e271Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    OBJECTIVE: In an ongoing, open-label, phase 1b study on the intrathecal administration of rituximab for progressive multiple sclerosis, an intraventricular catheter was inserted for drug delivery. The objective of this study was to characterize the limited white matter axonal injury evoked by catheter insertion by analyzing a panel of markers for tissue damage in CSF and serum.

    METHODS: Lumbar CSF and serum were collected before catheter insertion and at regular intervals during the follow-up period of 1 year. Levels of neurofilament light polypeptide (NF-L), glial fibrillary acidic protein, microtubule-associated protein tau, and S100 calcium binding protein B were measured in the CSF, and NF-L was also quantified in serum at each time point.

    RESULTS: One month after neurosurgical trauma, there was a distinct peak in NF-L concentration in both CSF and serum. In contrast, the biomarkers S100 calcium binding protein B, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and microtubule-associated protein tau did not show any significant changes. NF-L levels in both CSF and serum peaked at 1 month post surgery, returning to baseline after 6 to 9 months. A strong correlation was observed between the concentrations of NF-L in CSF and serum.

    CONCLUSIONS: The NF-L level, in CSF and serum, appears to be both a sensitive and specific marker for white matter axonal injury. This makes NF-L a valuable tool with which to evaluate acute white matter axonal damage in a clinical setting. Serum analysis of NF-L may become a convenient way to follow white matter axonal damage longitudinally.

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  • 5.
    de Flon, Pierre
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Gunnarsson, Martin
    Laurell, Katarina
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Söderström, Lars
    Birgander, Richard
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiation Sciences, Diagnostic Radiology.
    Lindqvist, Thomas
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiation Sciences, Diagnostic Radiology.
    Krauss, Wolfgang
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Bergman, Joakim
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Sundström, Peter
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience. Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
    Reduced inflammation in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis after therapy switch to rituximab2016In: Neurology, ISSN 0028-3878, E-ISSN 1526-632X, Vol. 87, no 2, p. 141-147Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Objective: To describe the effects of switching treatment from ongoing first-line injectable therapies to rituximab on inflammatory activity measured by MRI and levels of CSF neurofilament light chain (CSF-NFL) in a cohort of patients with clinically stable relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS).

    Method: Seventy-five patients with clinically stable RRMS treated with the first-line injectables interferon-β (IFN-β) and glatiramer acetate (GA) at 3 Swedish centers were switched to rituximab in this open-label phase II multicenter study. After a run-in period of 3 months, 2 IV doses of 1,000 mg rituximab were given 2 weeks apart followed by repeated clinical assessment, MRI, and CSF-NFL for 24 months.

    Results: The mean cumulated number of gadolinium-enhancing lesions per patient at months 3 and 6 after treatment shift to rituximab was reduced compared to the run-in period (0.028 vs 0.36, p = 0.029). During the first year after treatment shift, the mean number of new or enlarged T2 lesions per patient was reduced (0.01 vs 0.28, p = 0.004) and mean CSF-NFL levels were reduced by 21% (p = 0.01).

    Conclusions: For patients with RRMS, a treatment switch from IFN or GA to rituximab is associated with reduced inflammatory activity measured by MRI and CSF-NFL.

    Classification of evidence: This study provides Class IV evidence that rituximab has an equal or superior effect in reducing inflammatory activity in RRMS measured by MRI and CSF-NFL compared to first-line injectables during the first year after treatment shift.

  • 6.
    de Flon, Pierre
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Söderström, Lars
    Laurell, Katarina
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Sundström, Peter
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Gunnarsson, Martin
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience. Dept of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm.
    Immunological profile in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with multiple sclerosis after treatment switch to rituximab and compared with healthy controls2018In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 13, no 2, article id e0192516Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    OBJECTIVE: To investigate changes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) immunological profile after treatment switch from first-line injectables to rituximab in patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS), and to compare the profile in MS patients with healthy controls (HC).

    METHOD: Cerebrospinal fluid from 70 patients with clinically stable RRMS and 55 HC was analysed by a multiplex electrochemiluminescence method for a broad panel of cytokines and immunoactive substances before, and over a two-year period after, treatment switch to rituximab. After quality assessment of data, using a predefined algorithm, 14 analytes were included in the final analysis.

    RESULTS: Ten of the 14 analytes differed significantly in MS patients compared with HC at baseline. Levels of IP-10 (CXCL10), IL-12/23p40, IL-6, sVCAM1, IL-15, sICAM1 and IL-8 (CXCL8) decreased significantly after treatment switch to rituximab. The cytokines IP-10 and IL-12/IL-23p40 displayed the largest difference versus HC at baseline and also the largest relative reduction after therapy switch to rituximab.

    CONCLUSION: We found significant changes in the immunological profile after therapy switch to rituximab in RRMS in the direction towards the values of HC. IP-10 and IL12/IL-23p40 deserve further studies as part of the immunopathogenesis of MS as well as for the mode of action of rituximab in MS.

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  • 7. Khademi, Mohsen
    et al.
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Gilthorpe, Jonathan
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Wuolikainen, Anna
    Umeå University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry.
    Al Nimer, Faiez
    Harris, Robert
    Andersson, Magnus
    Brundin, Lou
    Piehl, Fredrik
    Olsson, Tomas
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Multivariate analysis of inflammatory and neuronal injury markers in cerebrospinal fluid of multiple sclerosis: higher levels are associated with younger age2012In: Journal of Neuroimmunology, ISSN 0165-5728, E-ISSN 1872-8421, Vol. 253, no 1-2, p. 100-100Article in journal (Other academic)
  • 8. Khademi, Mohsen
    et al.
    Dring, Ann M.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Gilthorpe, Jonathan D.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Wuolikainen, Anna
    Umeå University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry.
    Al Nimer, Faiez
    Harris, Robert A.
    Andersson, Magnus
    Brundin, Lou
    Piehl, Fredrik
    Olsson, Tomas
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Intense Inflammation and Nerve Damage in Early Multiple Sclerosis Subsides at Older Age: A Reflection by Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers2013In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 8, no 5, p. e63172-Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Inflammatory mediators have crucial roles in leukocyte recruitment and subsequent central nervous system (CNS) neuroinflammation. The extent of neuronal injury and axonal loss are associated with the degree of CNS inflammation and determine physical disability in multiple sclerosis (MS). The aim of this study was to explore possible associations between a panel of selected cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers and robust clinical and demographic parameters in a large cohort of patients with MS and controls (n = 1066) using data-driven multivariate analysis. Levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 13 (CXCL13), osteopontin (OPN) and neurofilament-light chain (NFL) were measured by ELISA in 548 subjects comprising different MS subtypes (relapsing-remitting, secondary progressive and primary progressive), clinically isolated syndrome and persons with other neurological diseases with or without signs of inflammation/infection. Principal component analyses and orthogonal partial least squares methods were used for unsupervised and supervised interrogation of the data. Models were validated using data from a further 518 subjects in which one or more of the four selected markers were measured. There was a significant association between increased patient age and lower levels of CXCL13, MMP9 and NFL. CXCL13 levels correlated well with MMP9 in the younger age groups, but less so in older patients, and after approximately 54 years of age the levels of CXCL13 and MMP9 were consistently low. CXCL13 and MMP9 levels also correlated well with both NFL and OPN in younger patients. We demonstrate a strong effect of age on both inflammatory and neurodegenerative biomarkers in a large cohort of MS patients. The findings support an early use of adequate immunomodulatory disease modifying drugs, especially in younger patients, and may provide a biological explanation for the relative inefficacy of such treatments in older patients at later disease stages.

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  • 9.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Bergman, Joakim
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Vågberg, Mattias
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Birgander, Richard
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiation Sciences, Diagnostic Radiology.
    Lindqvist, Thomas
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiation Sciences, Diagnostic Radiology.
    Gilthorpe, Jonathan
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Bergenheim, Tommy
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Rapid depletion of B lymphocytes by ultra-low-dose rituximab delivered intrathecally2015In: Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation, E-ISSN 2332-7812, Vol. 2, no 2, article id e79Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Objective: We are conducting an open-label phase 1b study on the efficacy of intrathecal (IT) administration of rituximab, provided via an Ommaya reservoir, for the treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis (PMS). The objective of this initial study was to monitor B lymphocytes in peripheral blood (PB) and CSF from the first 10 patients 1 year posttreatment.

    Methods: Dose titration was performed with daily escalation from 1 mg to 25 mg IT rituximab (n=3). Lymphocyte subpopulations were monitored daily during dose escalation in PB by flow cytometry and subsequently every 3 months for 1 year, after a total dose of 3 x 25 mg. PB B-lymphocyte subpopulations for the remaining patients (n = 7) were monitored at regular intervals. CSF lymphocyte subpopulations for all patients were monitored by flow cytometry every 2-3 months.

    Results: The PB B-lymphocyte count dropped rapidly after the first 2 injections (total dose of 3.5 mg IT rituximab) to undetectable levels. Three 25-mg doses given once per week depleted peripheral B lymphocytes entirely for the following 3-6 month period.

    Conclusions: Monoclonal antibodies seem to rapidly redistribute to the peripheral compartment following IT injection. Ultra-low doses of rituximab given IT are sufficient to cause complete depletion of peripheral B lymphocytes, indicating that low-dose IT treatment has the potential to be effective in both the CNS and systemic compartments.

    Classification of evidence: This study provides Class IV evidence that for patients with PMS, rituximab provided via an Ommaya reservoir depletes peripheral blood B lymphocytes.

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  • 10.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Dring, Ann Marie
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Fogdell-Hahn, Anna
    Jones, Iwan
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine (UCMM).
    Engdahl, Elin
    Lundkvist, Malin
    Brännström, Thomas
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology.
    Gilthorpe, Jonathan D
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Fatal neuroinflammation in a case of multiple sclerosis with anti-natalizumab antibodies2013In: Neurology, ISSN 0028-3878, E-ISSN 1526-632X, Vol. 80, no 10, p. 965-967Article in journal (Other academic)
  • 11.
    Vågberg, Mattias
    et al.
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Norgren, Niklas
    UmanDiagnostics AB, Umeå, Sweden.
    Dring, Ann
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Lindqvist, Thomas
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiation Sciences, Diagnostic Radiology.
    Birgander, Richard
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiation Sciences, Diagnostic Radiology.
    Zetterberg, Henrik
    Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden; UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom.
    Svenningsson, Anders
    Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Clinical Neuroscience.
    Levels and Age Dependency of Neurofilament Light and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein in Healthy Individuals and Their Relation to the Brain Parenchymal Fraction2015In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 10, no 8, article id e0135886Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Background Neurofilament light (NFL) and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) are integral parts of the axonal and astrocytal cytoskeletons respectively and are released into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in cases of cellular damage. In order to interpret the levels of these biomarkers in disease states, knowledge on normal levels in the healthy is required. Another biomarker for neurodegeneration is brain atrophy, commonly measured as brain parenchymal fraction (BPF) using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Potential correlations between levels of NFL, GFAP and BPF in healthy individuals have not been investigated. Objectives To present levels of NFL and GFAP in healthy individuals stratified for age, and investigate the correlation between them as well as their correlation with BPF. Methods The CSF was analysed in 53 healthy volunteers aged 21 to 70 (1 sample missing for GFAP analysis) and 48 of the volunteers underwent determination of BPF using MRI. Results Mean (+/- SD) NFL was 355 ng/L (+/- 214), mean GFAP was 421 ng/L (+/- 129) and mean BPF was 0.867 (+/- 0.035). All three biomarkers correlated with age. NFL also correlated with both GFAP and BPF. When controlled for age, only the correlation between NFL and GFAP retained statistical significance. Conclusions This study presents data on age-stratified levels of NFL and GFAP in the CSF of healthy individuals. There is a correlation between levels of NFL and GFAP and both increase with age. A correlation between NFL and BPF was also found, but did not retain statistical significance if controlled for age.

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