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Purpose: Empathy has been widely theorized as an important ability in professions such as policing, in which to perform well individuals require multiple and interacting abilities, not least when resolving conflict situations. Even so, there are few studies investigating how subconstructs of empathy relate to other constructs such as general cognitive ability. The purpose of this paper is to establish, after evaluating psychometric properties, relationships among measures of empathy and cognitive ability in a sample of Swedish police students (n = 157).

Design/methodology/approach: Multiple latent variable models of how the different measures work to predict tasks that can be seen as proxies for the ability to understand another person’s situation and intentions are evaluated to determine the most robust relationship(s) within the data.

Findings: We find support for the psychometric properties reported in previous studies with the used instruments. We also find support for perspective-taking, a cognitive empathy subconstruct predicting the ability to recognize emotions, and also the affective part of empathy, predicting general cognitive ability. These findings are discussed at length in the paper.

Originality/value: This research adds more knowledge to the issue of how general cognitive ability relates to cognitive empathy and other subconstructs of empathy or Theory of Mind.

Purpose

Perspective taking (PT), as part of the empathy concept, is an important ability in the police profession. It is important to understand how PT can be measured, but also whether it changes over time. The purpose of this paper is to compare the outcomes of three different measures of PT, and to see whether police students’ PT changes at different stages of their education.

Design/methodology/approach

Three measures, one self-reported and two objective tests, were administered to Swedish National Police recruits at three distinct stages of their police training. The outcomes of the measures were psychometrically analyzed, after which associations between measures and between-group differences were assessed.

Findings

The result showed that the measures provided results that were in line with what had been reported in earlier studies. There were no significant correlations between the total scores of the three measures, yet students who graded their abilities higher on the subjective instrument did perform better on one of the objective tests. The findings also showed that recruits in later parts of their training self-reported significantly lower PT values than recruits at the beginning of their training.

Originality/value

This study adds knowledge on the ability of different types of instruments to measure PT and how this construct may develop over time among police recruits.

As societies are becoming more heterogeneous and complex, the role of the police is becoming more demanding. To fulfil this role, police officers need several widely recognised skills and personal qualities, but less is known about how they are valued by police recruits. Thus, we have examined views of police recruits in six European countries on three competencies or characteristics of known importance for police work: knowledge, leadership, and the ability to form good relations with citizens. We have also explored variations in views of recruits in different organisations and changes in their views during their training. For these purposes, we used survey data collected in the RECPOL project. Since the data were collected from different populations and at different times, the analysis is based on measurement invariance methodology, and one of the aims was to highlight the importance of rigorous appraisal of the quality and comparability of similar survey data using such methods. The results reveal both differences and similarities in views of recruits in the surveyed countries and changes during training. Police culture appears to be a significant factor, as more items in the applied instrument could be validly used in comparisons of recruits in organisations with similar police traditions. The results also showed interesting contrasts, e.g. new recruits in Sweden rated good relations with citizens more highly than recruits in organisations with a more military history, but this pattern changed during training, presumably due to influences of the recruitment process, training and culture within the organisations.

Knowledge tests, both standardized and teacher developed, are central in teachers’ daily work when forming decisions on student achievement. Although it is recommended that a test should be used only for its intended purpose, tests that were designed for summative purposes are nevertheless used for giving feedback or making formative decisions. The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether a summative test within the Swedish national test framework can provide meaningful information for formative use by testing its reliability on the subscore level. The study also aims to analyze whether a Swedish national test can be used for provide guidance for practitioners who wish to use the information on the subscore level for planning instruction as well as other formative purposes, as sometimes implied in the information to teachers.

This chapter gives an account of the admissions system to higher education in Sweden with special focus on the criteria used in the selection process: upper secondary school grades and scores from the Swedish Scholastic Aptitude Test (SweSAT). The Swedish educational system in general and the admissions system specifically have some unique features that may interest the reader. Primarily, the educational system, from preschool to higher education, has a comparatively high degree of centralization. Most higher education institutions are governed and funded by the state. This reflects on both the admissions process and the education that is provided by the universities. Other typical characteristics are strong beliefs in equal opportunities, lifelong learning, and second chances, all which influence the educational system in numerous ways. Higher education selection regulations are pervaded by meritocratic principles, but there are also expectations and demands for diversity in the student body.

This paper discusses the potential consequences of future changes to the Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test (SweSAT; based on the SAT), from a perspective of validity and efficiency. Since changes to the test will affect high-stakes decisions on student’s possibilities to access higher education, it is important to investigate how such changes will affect the admissions decisions: who will be admitted to higher education and who will not, which will lead to consequences to stakeholders on all levels. This paper presents a model for how a validation can be organised and some preliminary evidence of consequences that the changes will lead to.

Since international student achievement surveys were introduced in the 1960s, Sweden has participated in a large number of them. These surveys initially revealed unexpectedly low achievement levels in Sweden relative to other participating countries; however, there were some more positive findings and interpretations in the 1970s and 1980s. The results from the 1990s onwards have been more discouraging for Swedish educational policy and practice. In recent years,some improvements have been seen, although there is some controversy surrounding these interpretations. In Sweden ,international achievement surveys play an important role inframing political discussions about educational outcomes, and they are used for education policy monitoring. Nevertheless, it is hard to establish causal links between particular reforms and such uses of international achievement data. Moreover, the Swedish case illustrates how selective national uptake of these international measures is embedded in and contingent on contextual and historical national circumstances and reform trajectories.

In many educational programmes preparing students for professions where human interaction is central, the development of empathic ability is of importance. The aim of this study was to explore attitudes towards the importance of empathy in police work among police students. The intention was also to investigate if attitudes would change over time during education, and whether gender differences could be observed. A modified version of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy was administered to 355 Swedish police students in a mixed method design, including both between- and within-groups comparisons. Attitudes toward the importance of empathy were measured before and after a practical internship. The result showed that the students in general found empathic ability important, but also that they did not change their attitudes over time .The results were conflicting when it came to gender differences. There was no significant result for the between-group sample, but female students reported significantly higher compared to male students in the between-within group. This research is valuable in the discussion on how “soft skills” such as empathic ability can be assessed and developed in students in preparation for professional practice, and can also be useful in educational evaluation and planning.

In recent years, Sweden has adopted a criterion-referenced grading system, where the grade outcome is used for several purposes, but foremost for educational evaluation on student- and school levels as well as for selection to higher education. This thesis investigates the consequences of using criterion-referenced measurement for both educational evaluation and selection purposes. The thesis comprises an introduction and four papers that empirically investigate school grades and grading practices in Swedish upper secondary schools.

The first paper investigates the effect of school competition on the school grades. The analysis focuses on how students in schools with and without competition are ranked, based on their grades and SweSAT scores. The results show that schools that are exposed to competition tend to grade their students higher than other schools. This effect is found to be related to the use of grades as quality indicators for the schools, which means that schools that compete for their students tend to be more lenient, hence inflating the grades. The second paper investigates grade averages over a six-year period, starting with the first cohort who graduated from upper secondary school with a GPA based on criterion-referenced grades. The results show that grades have increased every year since the new grading system was introduced, which cannot be explained by improved performances, selection effects or strategic course choices. The conclusion is that the increasing pressure for high grading has led to grade inflation over time. The third paper investigates if grading practices are related to school size. The study is based on a similar model as paper I, but with data from graduates over a six-year period, and with school size as the main focus. The results show small but significant size effects, suggesting that the smallest schools (<300 students) are higher grading than other schools, and that the largest schools (>1000 students) are lower grading than other schools. This is assumed to be an effect of varying assessment practices, in combination with external and internal pressure for high grading. The fourth and final paper investigates if grading practices differ among upper secondary programmes, and how the course compositions in the programmes affect how students are ranked in the process of selection to higher education. The results show that students in vocationally oriented programmes are higher graded than other students, and also favoured by their programmes’ course compositions, which have a positive effect on their competitive strength in the selection to higher education.

In the introductory part of the thesis, these results are discussed from the perspective of a theoretical framework, with special attention to validity issues in a broad perspective. The conclusion is that the criterion-referenced grades, both in terms of being used for educational evaluation, and as an instrument for selection to higher education, are wanting both in reliability and in validity. This is related to the conflicting purposes of the instruments, in combination with few control mechanisms, which affects how grades are interpreted and used, hence leading to consequences for students, schools and society in general.

Education and assessment in Swedish schools have been affected by several reforms during the last two decades. The educational system has moved from centralization to decentralization and a goal-oriented approach has been introduced on all educational levels. This paper provides an historical overview of the Swedish educational system, educational and assessment policies and principles, to explain why and how the reforms have been carried out. This is followed by a discussion on the effects and consequences of recent reforms, based on findings in recent education and assessment research.

This study investigates empirically the mechanisms behind the increasing grade point averages in Swedish upper secondary schools. Four hypotheses are presented as plausible explanations; improved student achievements, student selection effects, strategic behaviour in course choices, and lowering of grading standards. The analysis is based on extensive data, and focuses on grades and test scores from upper secondary school graduates over a 6-year period. The result shows that the increase in grade point averages cannot be explained by better achievements, selection effects or course choices, which means that standards have been lowered, which is interpreted here as grade inflation. The grade inflation is most likely an effect of the leniency in the grading system in combination with pressure for high grading, related to the upper secondary school grades' function as an instrument for selection to higher education.

In recent years, the Swedish school system has been subject to a number of reforms. These reforms have mainly been focused on decentralization and educational goals and have resulted in many changes for the schools and people in the system. Among other things, the responsibility for schools was moved from the state to municipalities. The “free school reform” and the introduction of a voucher system put the schools in the market and introduced competition on many levels. National steering documents would ensure common goals and comparability in terms of educational content. The idea was to give the professionals within the system, i.e., school leaders and teachers, the freedom to decide how to reach the goals, while using the open market to “weed out” unsuccessful schools.

The Swedish system which used to be one of the most centralized and regulated systems in the world, is today one of the most decentralized and deregulated, characterized by competition on many levels and an increasing focus on results. This has put pressure on the schools to show good results, which, in turn, has led to a number of consequences for all stakeholders. This chapter describes the Swedish goal-referenced school system through the perspective of educational accountability and looks at how the reforms and the increased focus on results have affected school leaders and teachers. Validity issues related to the current accountability model and the performance measures are also discussed.

After an educational reform in the 1990s, all upper secondary programs in Sweden, irrespective of their orientation, are to give students the basic requirements for higher education eligibility. The grade point average (GPA) is used for ranking students in the selection process. This study empirically investigates grading patterns in upper secondary schools. The purpose is to find out if some programs are higher or lower grading than other programs, and also if the course compositions of the various programs affect the students’ GPA and hence their ranking. The analysis is based on data from all students graduating from Swedish upper secondary schools in 2002. The results show that students in vocationally oriented programs are favoured, both by easy grading and by their program’s course composition, which affects their competitive strength in the process of selection to higher education.

The Swedish school system is based on a goal-referenced model but with less regulation than in most other systems. The idea is that the methods used for reaching the goals should be subordinate the outcome. The purpose is to enable the teachers the freedom to individualise education and use the most appropriate assessment method for each situation, which in turn will be beneficial for student learning. Formative assessment is a key component in this process. However, this model does not seem to be entirely successful, since evaluations of student performance shows a decrease over time and also increased gaps between student groups.  This presentation describes the first study in a project that investigates how formative assessment is carried out in Swedish schools. The presentation describes a common formative assessment model that is used in a Swedish elementary school (ages 14-16) and the problems that the teachers are experiencing when trying to carry it out in practice. Plausible reasons are discussed and a revised version of the model is presented.

The SweSAT, or Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test (in Swedish:Högskoleprovet) is a test used in admissions to higher education in Sweden. The test serves as an alternative to high school GPA to give students who donot have a competitive high school GPA, or simply want to maximize their possibility to compete for attractive study positions, a second chance. The testis optional, open for all and can be taken unlimited number of times. This means that the number of test takers and composition of test takers varies between administrations; the popularity of the test to some degree depends on external circumstances such as the situation on the job market, school reforms, etc, that will affect the interest in higher education studies. The aim of this report is to describe the population of test-takers in the spring and autumn of 2019 when it comes to composition and test scores. Results are presented for test-takers of different gender, age and previous education. Additionally, the norming and equating procedure and the outcome of the standardization of the test is described. Test taker performance and repeated test taking is also examined and discussed. 

This paper evaluates the selection instruments for higher education in Sweden, by comparing how students selected on either grades from upper secondary school (GPA) or an admissions test (the SweSAT) perform in higher education. The study appreciates that evaluating multiple instruments is not without problems, as applicants in different admission groups are not necessarily comparable with respect to personal traits, and different instruments may benefit individuals differently. The study investigates if combining regression models with matching methods will give additional or better information about the different selection instruments, compared to traditional methods in predictive validity studies. The data consists of register data from students born 1972-1974, who have been admitted to a Business Administration or Edconomics programme in a Swedish university between the years 1993 to 1996. The number of credits taken in higher education serve as criterion for academic success. The results from the regression analyses support previous findings in validation studies, showing that the GPA admitted students are more productive in the economics programme than students admitted from the SweSAT group, and even a negative correlation between test scores and number of credits among those admitted. However, the results also show that the SweSAT group are more productive than the GPA group overall, when the total number of university credits serve as criterion.

This paper explores the connection between grade inflation and school competition by studying graduates from the Swedish upper secondary schools in 1997. The final grades are compared to the SweSAT national test scores. Single school municipalities are compared with multiple school municipalities in order to study if potential intra-municipal school competition leads to grade inflation. We also compare independent schools with public schools. It is found that intra-municipal school competition leads to modest levels of grade inflation. Foremost, non-native students fare better being graded in municipalities with potential competition than in single school environments. Independent schools appear to inflate grades heavily. A male student with average previous educational achievement improves his position in the grade distribution by approximately 15% if graded in an independent school.

Student selection in the Swedish admission to higher education system is based on two fundamentally different performance measures: their criterion-referenced upper secondary grade point average (GPA) and their score on a norm-referenced and multiple-choice admissions test [Swedish admissions test (SweSAT)]. Several student characteristics are known to affect rankings in such assessments. The objectives of this study are to assess main and interactive effects of several variables that influence rankings obtained from these measures in greater detail than previously attempted and assess the findings from a fairness perspective. The data consist of test scores, upper secondary grades, and background information for SweSAT participants aged 19–25 years, who took the test in the autumn of 2011 (N = 23,214) or spring of 2012 (N = 27,075). The data were analyzed through correlation and regression analyses. The results support previous findings that gender, parents’ education, and immigration status are all influential. Males obtain better SweSAT scores than females, while females obtain better GPAs, in accordance with previous findings regarding gender-related variations in rankings provided by similar instruments. Moreover, we found the same pattern in scores for specific components of the test and grades in specific subjects, suggesting that the test and GPA measure different, gender-related, things. In addition, students with an immigrant background seem to be more highly ranked by grades than by the SweSAT, largely due to differences in assessments of their verbal skills.

In higher education admissions systems, different principles guide how students are selected when there is competition for study positions or when there is a limit on the number of students that can be admitted. The merit-based approach is very common in which the candidate with the best qualifications, or merits, is accepted. The way merit is defined and measured is, however, a complicated matter and reflects various views on validity and fairness. This chapter describes and discusses principles for the allocation of study positions, focusing on admissions practices where individuals are promoted or selected on the basis of their merits. Applications and challenges of such models, and the consequences for individuals, universities or colleges, and society at large are also discussed.

This paper focuses on the predictive validity of the upper secondary grade point average (GPA), when used as selection instrument to higher education. The purpose of the paper is to find out if the predictive strength of the GPA is affected by time, here measured as the time that has passed between when the grades were received (graduation) and university entrance. The data includes approximately 5 900 students admitted to a Business administration or an Economics programme in a Swedish university between the years 1993 to 1996. The predictive validity is studied by correlating the GPA from upper secondary school for the students from each age group with their academic performance, measured by university credits. The results show that there is a weak positive correlation between grades and university credits, but that the predictive strenght decreases with time, to be insignificant about three years after upper secondary school completion. Implications are discussed.

I Sverige används i huvudsak två urvalsinstrument för att gruppera och rang-ordna sökande till högskolan: betygsmedelvärdet från gymnasieskolan och resultat på högskoleprovet. I den här rapporten studeras hur betygen från gymnasieskolan förutsäger studerandes prestationer i högskolan bland studen-ter som antas vid olika tidpunkter efter avslutad gymnasieutbildning. Syftet är att undersöka om den prediktiva styrkan hos gymnasiebetygen påverkas av tid mellan utbildningen och utbildningsutfall i högre utbildning. Studien omfattar cirka 5 900 studenter som antagits till ett ekonomprogram vid en svensk hög-skola, 1993–1996. Resultatet visar att det finns en svag positiv korrelation mellan gymnasiebetyg och universitetspoäng, men att den prediktiva styrkan minskar med tid mellan avslutad utbildning och utbildningsutfall i högre utbildning. Om det gått tre år eller mer mellan gymnasium och antagning finns inget signifikant samband kvar.

In a number of countries, both high school GPA and admission tests are used in the selection to higher education. The validity research on such instruments has mainly focused on their predictive validity, and the outcome generally shows that the GPA is a better predictor than the test. One explanation is that the grades also measure non-cognitive factors, which are considered important for school performance. Moreover, many admission tests have been criticised for being too alien to what is being taught in schools, hence lacking in relevance for future education. As a consequence, many admission tests are being revised, to be more similar to the school grades in terms of content. A relevant question is if this is the right way to proceed if the main purpose of the test is to predict future study success? This study compares the subtests of a traditional admissions test (the SweSAT) with high school grades in verbal and quantitative subjects in terms of content construct and predictive strength. Success in higher education is measured by the number of credits achieved by students in economics and business administration programmes at Swedish universities. The purpose is to find out if the difference in predictive strength can be related to cognitive or non-cognitive factors.  The data is analysed by regression analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM). The findings show that there are differences in content as well as construct, but that variations in predictive strength have to do with both cognitive and non-cognitive factors, where quantitative grades and test scores are more similar in construct than verbal grades and test scores, but also better predictors of performance in higher education. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research, and some suggestions for future research are made.

Admissions tests usually refer to tests designed to find candidates suitable for higher education. Such tests and other forms of entrance examinations can be made mandatory for applicants in a country or region to take or they may be specific to a university or a university program. This entry first discusses the roles and importance of admissions tests, the principles on which they are based, and their history. It then looks at how admissions tests can be characterized and issues in admissions testing. In an admission decision, there are two fundamental roles that a test can fulfill: to identify candidates who have sufficient knowledge to be able to complete an education (eligibility) and to rank the candidates and to make a selection in cases where there are more eligible candidates than there are available slots (selection). A test can be designed to meet either of these two roles, although most admissions tests are used only for selection purposes. Admissions tests can be further categorized with respect to the construct or constructs they are assumed to measure. Standardized aptitude tests measure aptitude in general cognitive skills and are designed to determine a person’s ability to learn. Entrance examinations are generally achievement oriented and focus on what a candidate has learned. Having a fair selection model is of greatest importance in a democratic society. Although modern higher education often can be regarded as education for large parts of the population, universities are still institutions educating those who will hold important positions and influence society. An important question is how the number of slots at these universities should be distributed and what constitutes a fair admissions system, as this is not an easy or uncontroversial question to answer.

The purpose of this study is to find out if the income premium from university entrance differs with respect to prior achievement as measured by previous grades. Using income at the age of 28 to 30, we analyze if high-achievers have larger income premiums from entering university than low-achievers in a sample of Swedish upper secondary school students. We find that income differences generally are positive, albeit larger for females than for males. It is also found that the income premium is larger for high-achievers than for low-achievers. However, especially for males, the income premium rises only marginally with prior achievement for a large part of the grade distribution, indicating that there are only small differences in the returns to university entrance for a majority of upper secondary school graduates.

The purpose of this study is to find out if the income premium from university entrance differs with respect to prior achievement as measured by previous grades. Using income at the age of 28 to 30, we analyze if high-achievers have larger income premiums from entering university than low-achievers in a sample of Swedish upper secondary school students. We find that income differences generally are positive, albeit larger for females than for males. It is also found that the income premium is larger for high-achievers than for low-achievers. However, especially for males, the income premium rises only marginally with prior achievement for a large part of the grade distribution, indicating that there are only small differences in the returns to university entrance for a majority of upper secondary school graduates.

In Sweden, there are two separate instruments for ranking applicants in the admission to higher education; the GPA from upper secondary school and the Swedish Scholastic Assessment Test (the SweSAT). A problem in the selection is that different groups of students perform differently on the instruments. Also, while the GPA is regarded more valid but with reliability problems, the test is seen as reliable but with lower predictive validity. Hence, in 2011, the test was revised, with the purpose to increase its relevance for university studies. New item types and new subtests were introduced, and the weights of the verbal and quantitative parts of the test were made more balanced. This study compares how students are ranked on the basis of the new test compared to their GPA, to find out if previous group differences still remain. The data consists of test participants in the autumn of 2011 and spring of 2012 at the ages 17 to 25. The results show that the correlation between test scores and GPA is approximately the same as before the revision. It is also found that there are still group differences in terms of boys performing better on the test and girls on the GPA. However, when studying separate sub-tests and grades and national course tests from isolated subjects, the students seem to be ranked more similarly than in the overall SweSAT-GPA comparison. Although students with a non-Swedish background are performing lower than other students on both instruments, boys in this group seem to be graded more leniently than the girls with a similar background in mathematics, and the opposite is the case in verbal subjects.