A supported liquid crystalline cubic phase housing glucose oxidase on an electrode surface has been suggested as bio-anode in a biofuel. The purpose of this investigation is to clarify some aspect on the mediated enzymatic oxidation of glucose in such a bio-anode where the mediator ferrocene-carboxylic acid and glucose were dissolved in the solution. The enzyme glucose oxidase was housed in the water channels of the mono-olein cubic phase. The system was investigated with cyclic voltammetry at different scan rates and the temperature was varied between 15 degrees C and 30 degrees C. The diffusion coefficient of the mediator and also the film resistance was estimated showing a large decrease in the mass-transport properties as the temperature was decreased. The current from mediated oxidation of glucose at the electrode surface increased with decreasing film thickness. The transport of the mediator in the cubic phase was the rate-limiting step in the overall reaction, where the oxidation of glucose took place at the outer surface of the cubic phase.
AbstractHypothesis Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, EIS, can be used as a complementary technique to investigate ion interaction with the headgroup region in the aqueous channels of a lipid cubic phase, LCP. Experiments A freestanding membrane made of monoolein LCP was formed by filling a small aperture that separates two cell compartments. The cell compartments were filled with electrolyte solutions at two different ionic strengths: i.e.: 10 and 100 mM, of KCl, CsBr and CaCl2. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was recorded between two platinum electrodes that were present at each side of the membrane. Findings The membrane resistance and capacitance were estimated from equivalent circuit fitting of the impedance data. It was confirmed that calcium ions interacts strongly with the headgroup region in the aqueous channels giving significantly higher membrane resistances compared to monovalent alkali metal ions. The membrane capacitance with Ca2+(aq) in solution was concentration dependent, which for the first time indicates formation of two different cubic phases at these conditions.
Grafting of electrodes with diazonium salts using cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a well-established procedure for surface modification. However, little is known about the effect of the concentration of the diazonium salt on the number of layers grafted on the electrode surface. In this work, the impact of concentration on the grafting of 4-carboxybenzenediazonium (4-CBD) onto a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) is elucidated. The number of layers grafted on the GCE was linearly dependent on the concentration of 4-CBD and varied between 0.9 and 4.3 when the concentration was varied between 0.050 and 0.30 mmol/L at 0.10 V.s−1. Characterization of modified glassy carbon surface with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the grafting of carboxyphenyl layer on the surface. Grafting with 0.15 mmol/L 4-CBD (1 CV cycle) did not form a detectable amount of carboxyphenyl (CP) moieties at the surface, while a single scan with higher concentration (2.5 mmol/L) or multiple scans (22 cycles) gave detectable signals, indicating formation of multilayers. We also demonstrate the possibility of removing the thin layer grafted on a glassy carbon electrode by applying high oxidation potential +1.40 V.
Electric double layer properties and protonation rates at the surface of a mechanically and chemically polished (001) surface of hematite (alpha-Fe2O3) contacted with aqueous solutions of NaCl were extracted by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Effects of pH (4-12) and ionic strength (10-1000 mM) on the EIS response of the electrode were predicted using an electrical equivalent circuit model accounting for hematite bulk and interfacial processes. These efforts generated diffuse layer as well as compact layer capacitances and resistance values pertaining to interfacial processes. Diffuse layer capacitance values lie in the 0.5-0.6 mu F cm(-2) region and are about 1.5 times smaller than those obtained on a roughened hematite surface. Compact layer capacitances are strongly pH dependent as they pertain to the transfer of ions (charge carriers) from the diffuse layer onto surface (hydr)oxo groups. These values, alongside those of resistance adsorption, pointed a 50% decrease in proton adsorption/desorption resistance under acidic and alkaline conditions relative to that of the point of zero charge (pH 8-9). Increasing ionic strength generally induces larger diffuse layer capacitances, larger adsorption capacitances, and lower resistance values. Such a response is in line with the concept for thinner electric double layers and facilitated proton adsorption reactions by solutions of high ionic strengths. Relaxation times pertaining to the transfer of charge carriers across the compact plane induced by the EIS experiments lie in the 0.7-4.2 s range and become larger under acidic conditions. Decreases in site availability and increases in electrostatic repulsion are two possible contributing factors impeding reaction rates below the point of zero charge. Collectively, these finding are underpinning important relationships between classical views on mineral surface complexation reactions and electrochemical views of semiconductor/water interfaces.
The interfacial electrochemistry of hematite (α-Fe2O3) is a key aspect for understanding the behavior of this important mineral phase in photocatalytic water-splitting devices as well as in terrestrial and atmospheric systems. Nano- to microsized particles are often multifaceted and exhibit terminations of varied crystallographic orientations and structures. As structure often controls reactivity, this study was devised to identify the impact of crystallographic orientation on the electrochemical response of hematite electrode surfaces contacted with technologically, geochemically, and environmentally important solutions of inorganic ions (NaCl, NaHCO3, and NH4Cl). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements of single hematite crystals oriented along the (001) and (012) faces were used for this purpose. The EIS responses of the electrodes were described in terms of an equivalent electrical circuit that accounts for fast bulk and slower interfacial processes. Capacitance and resistance values for the bulk processes confirmed the anisotropic conductivity attributes of hematite and supported the use of the EIS data for interpreting the crystallographic orientation dependence of interfacial processes. These efforts extracted diffuse (C-dl) and compact (T-ad) layer capacitances and resistance (R-ad), as well as relaxation times pertaining to the re-equilibration of interfacial species during EIS. Capacitance values confirmed the greater charge-storing capability of the (012) face (C-dl = 110 mu F.cm(-2); T-ad = 335 mu F.cm(-2).s(-phi)) compared to the (001) face (C-dl = 0.20.6 mu F.cm(-2); T-ad = 0.20.6 mu F.cm(-2).s(-phi)). This was also confirmed through the resistance values pertaining to the transfer of charge carriers across the compact plane, which were lower (R-ad = 0.00.8 M Omega.cm(-2)) on the (012) face than on the (001) face (R-ad = 14 M Omega.cm(-2)). Binding of chloride and (bi)carbonate on the (012) face under acidic conditions was associated with an increase in capacitance values and relaxation times. The lowest capacitances and relaxation times occurred in the pH 8-9 region, which correspond to a likely point of zero charge. The capacitance values in NH4Cl were considerably lower than in NaCl and NaHCO3, owing to hydrogen bonding between the NH4+/NH3 species and surface (hydr)oxo groups. Such interactions can block protonation reactions and can be translated to negligible relaxation times for this system. Collectively, these findings underpin the interdependency of the hematite electrode surface orientation on its electrochemical signatures for important inorganic ions of direct relevance to technological and natural systems.
This study uncovers bifluoride-type (difluorohydrogenate(I); [HF2](-)) species formed at mineral/water interfaces. Bifluoride forms at equivalent to Al-F surface sites resulting from the partial fluoridation of gibbsite (gamma-Al(OH3)) and bayerite (alpha-Al(OH3)) particles exposed to aqueous solutions of 50 mM NaF. Fluoride removal from these solutions is proton-promoted and results in a strongly self-buffered suspensions at circumneutral pH, proceeds at a F : H consumption ratio of 2 : 1, and with recorded losses of up to 17 mM fluoride (58 F nm(-2)). These loadings exceed crystallographic site densities by a factor of 3-4, yet the reactions have no resolvable impact on particle size, shape and mineralogy. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of frozen (-155 degrees C) wet mineral pastes revealed coexisting surface F- and HF0 species. Electron energy loss features pointed to multilayer distribution of these species at the mineral/water interface. XPS also uncovered a distinct form of Na+ involved in binding fluoride-bearing species. XPS and solid state magic angle spinning F-19 nuclear magnetic resonance measurements showed that these fluoride species were highly comparable to a sodium-bifluoride (NaHF2) reference. First layer surface species are represented as =Al-F-H-F-Al= and =Al-F-Na-F-Al=, and may form multi-layered species into the mineral/water interface. These results consequently point to a potentially overlooked inorganic fluorine species in a technologically relevant mineral/water interfacial systems.
Reactions taking place on hematite (α-Fe2O3) surfaces contacted with aqueous solutions are of paramount importance for environmental and technological processes. Electrochemical properties of the hematite/water interface are central to these processes and can be probed by open circuit potentials and cyclic voltammetric measurements of semiconducting electrodes. In this study electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used to extract resistive and capacitive attributes of this interface on mm-sized single-body hematite electrodes. This was carried out by developing equivalent circuit models to impedance data collected on a semi-conducting hematite specimen equilibrated in solutions of 0.1 M NaCl and NH4Cl at various pH values. These efforts produced distinct sets of capacitance values for the diffuse and compact layers of the interface. Diffuse layer capacitances shift in the pH 3-11 range from 2.32 to 2.50 μF⋅cm-2 in NaCl and from 1.43 to 1.99 μF⋅cm-2 in NH4Cl. Furthermore, these values reach a minimum capacitance at pH 9, near a probable point of zero charge for an undefined hematite surface exposing a variety of (hydr)oxo functional groups. Compact layer capacitances pertain to transfer of ions (charge carriers) from the diffuse layer to surface hydroxyls, and are independent of pH in NaCl, with values of 32.57±0.49 μF·cm-2·s-ϕ. They however decrease with pH in NH4Cl from 33.77 at pH 3.5 to 21.02 μF·cm-2·s-ϕ at pH 10.6 due to interactions of ammonium species with surface (hydr)oxo groups. Values of ϕ (0.71-0.73 in NaCl and 0.56-0.67 in NH4Cl) denote the non-ideal behavior of this capacitor, here treated as a constant phase element. As electrode-based techniques are generally not applicable to the commonly insulating metal (oxyhydr)oxides found in the environment, this study opens opportunities for exploring mineral/water interface chemistry by EIS studies of single-body hematite specimens.
A model-free multivariate analysis using singular value decomposition is employed to refine an equivalent electrical circuit model in order to probe the electrochemical properties of the hematite/water interface in dilute NaCl and NH4Cl solutions using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The result shows that the surface protonation is directly related to the mobility and trapping of charge carriers at the mineral surface. Moreover, the point of zero charge can be found at pH where the charge transfer resistance is the highest, in addition to the minimum double layer capacitance. The innersphere interaction of the NH4+ ion with the surface is indicated by an increase of capacitance for charge carrier trapping from the protonated surface as well as lower double layer capacitance and open circuit potential. It is clear that the intrinsic electrochemical activity of hematite depends on the degree of surface (de) protonation and other inner-sphere adsorption, as these processes affect the charge carrier density in the surface state. This work also highlights an important synergistic effect of the two spectral analyses that enables EIS to be utilized in an in-depth investigation of mineral/water interfaces.
The speciation of ammonium at the hematite/water interface was probed by cryogenic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Wet pastes of colloidal hematite spheroids equilibrated in aqueous solutions of 50 mM NH4Cl exhibit distinctive pH-sensitive N 1s peaks for both NH4+ (401.7 eV) and NH3 (400.1 eV), yet total N/Fe ratios remain relatively invariant (0.029 ± 0.006) throughout the pH 2.2−10.5 range. Both NH4+ and NH3 species coexist throughout most of the tested pH range. NH4+ is most likely stabilized at the interface by hydrogen bonding with surface (hydr)oxo groups. A cationic sorption edge for NH3 is driven by proton abstraction of NH4+ by (hydr)oxo groups, forming surface complexes of the type ≡Fe−OH···NH3. These interactions shift the NH4+/NH3 equilibrium from pKa = 9.3 in water to 8.4 at the interface. Removal of excess water by vacuum dehydration induces, on the other hand, formation of NH2 directly bound to surface Fe atoms. These results underscore distinct ammonium species in contact with mineral surfaces and should be considered in understanding environmental and catalytic reactions in this medium.
Halide anion (F–, Cl–, Br–, and I–) adsorption and its impact on sodium adsorption at the hematite/water interface were studied by cryogenic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Measurements were carried out on frozen, centrifuged wet hematite pastes that were previously equilibrated in 50 mM electrolytic solutions in the pH 2–11 range. XPS-derived halide ion surface loadings decreased in the order F– > I– ≈ Cl– > Br–, whereas sodium loadings were in the order Na(F) > Na(I) > Na(Br) > Na(Cl). The greater sodium loadings in NaF and in NaI resulted from larger anion loadings in these systems. Bromide ion had the lowest loading among all halide ions despite having a charge-to-size ratio that is intermediate between those of Cl– and I–. This unexpected result may have arisen from specific properties of the hematite/water interface, such as water structure and electric double layer thickness. Fluoride ion adsorption proceeded via the formation of hydrogen bonds with the surface hydroxo groups (e.g., ≡Fe–OH2···F– or ≡Fe–OH···F–). Surface-bound fluoride ions exert a greater charge-screening effect than the other halide anions, as demonstrated by considerably small zeta potential values. Fe–F bond formation was excluded as a possible interfacial process as the F 1s peak binding energy (684.2 eV) was more comparable to that of NaF (684.6 eV) than FeF3 (685.4 eV). Overall, these findings motivate further refinements of existing thermodynamic adsorption models for predicting the ionic composition of hematite particle surfaces contacted with sodium halide aqueous solutions.
Colloidal suspensions of hematite in contact with aqueous solutions of 50 mM alkali metal chloride electrolytes (NaCl, KCl, RbCl, CsCl) were investigated by cryogenic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and electrophoretic mobility. Suspension pH values were varied from 2 to 11 in order to evaluate effects of positively- and negatively-charged hematite surfaces. XPS revealed coexisting cations and chloride ions both below and above the point of zero charge. Concentration profiles of adsorbed cations point to a Hofmeister series in the order of Na+ > K+ > Rb+ ≈ Cs+. Binding energies of photoelectrons emitted from electrolyte ions increased with pH at roughly 0.04 eV per pH unit. This shift was attributed to variations in the surface electric potential of hematite. This effect, compounded by rises in aliphatic carbon signals with pH, called for referencing of all spectra to the 530.0 eV oxide component of the hematite O1s spectrum. This departure from the traditional use of the external C 1s 285.0 eV peak is hereby proposed for cryogenic XPS studies of interfacial reactions involving hematite.