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In this article, we identify what herders in Fennoscandia and northwestern Russia see as critical conditions and events in the annual reindeer herding cycle. Indigenous Sámi and Yamal reindeer herders identify eight seasons, each of which has crucial importance in its own way. Differences in perception between Fennoscandian and northwestern Russian reindeer herders about good and bad seasonal conditions are based on the degree of climatic and geographic variation, herd control and the variety of simultaneous pressures on pastures. The scope and speed of ongoing climate change in the Arctic will profoundly modify these conditions, and consequently shape critical events and outcomes in reindeer herding. The resulting challenges need to be assessed in the context of social and economic dynamics. Reindeer herders throughout Fennoscandia and Russia are concerned about future prospects of their livelihood. To adapt to climate change and develop new strategies, reindeer herders must have access to pastures; they must retain their mobility and flexibility; and their participation in land-use decisions must be endorsed.

Against the backcloth of particularly fast environmental change in the Arctic, this study juxtaposes local perceptions of environmental change in two communities in the boreal zone of Northern Europe with scientific data. The local knowledge was gathered through an online participatory mapping survey among the two communities and scientific evidence was gathered from various peer-reviewed and official monitoring sources. Local knowledge of environmental change in Savukoski (Finland) resembles that in Jokkmokk (Sweden). Most perceived changes are in line with scientific studies, public discourse, and local concerns in the Arctic. What differs, however, is the degree of correspondence between local and scientific knowledge on certain phenomena: some dynamics are well documented in both local and scientific observations whereas other dynamics require more nuanced scientific research, particularly considering their relevance for local livelihoods. Among these are: berry yields, the abundance of mosquitoes and other Nematocera, peatland thaw and frost, and changes in river and lake ice conditions. It is noteworthy that in both Savukoski and Jokkmokk, for many people the most impactful changes are caused by resource extraction rather than climate change. Local concerns and perceptions of environmental change are not all shared nor easily translate into adaptation strategies, but nonetheless they have clear policy implications.

The Arctic is experiencing rapid and interlinked socio-environmental changes. Therefore, governance approaches that take the complex interactions between climate change, biodiversity loss, increasing land use pressures, and local livelihoods into account are needed: nexus approaches. However, an overview of whether and to what extent Arctic policies address these nexus elements in concert has been missing. Here we analyzed a large sample of publicly available assessment reports and policy documents from the terrestrial European Arctic. Our results show that, although nexus approaches are widely adopted in Arctic policy reporting, the emphasis varies among the governance levels, and documents underestimate certain interactions: local communities and traditional livelihoods are seldom seen as actors with agency and impact. Practical implementations were identified as potential advancements in Arctic governance: ecosystem-specific, technological, and authoritative solutions; co-production of knowledge; and adaptive co-management. Implementation of nexus approaches can promote more holistic environmental governance and guide cross-sectoral policies.

The introduction of exotic tree species can have profound effects on the native environment, including habitat use and movement patterns of animals, as well as becoming a management challenge for other land users. Here, we used GPS data from reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and remote sensing measurements of lichen cover and soil moisture to assess the effects of the exotic lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) on reindeer husbandry by the Indigenous Sámi in northern Sweden. We used locational data from 67 reindeer for three winters to analyze their habitat selection at the second-order selection (placement of home range in the landscape) and third-order selection (selection of sites within the home range) in relation to land cover class, terricolous lichen cover as measure of winter forage abundance, topographic features, and distance to roads. We also analyzed remotely sensed abundance of lichens in different forest types, and the association between these forest types and soil moisture as measure of suitability as lichen habitat. Compared to native P. sylvestris, we found that reindeer avoided stands with P. contorta where trees were higher than three meters. If P. contorta was the dominant tree species, reindeer were 60 % less likely to select these stands compared to stands with P. sylvestris, and 40 % less likely if P. contorta was less dominant at both orders of selection. We also found that reindeer selected areas with higher lichen cover. Lichen cover was lower in P. contorta stands compared to stands of the native P. sylvestris, even though P. contorta occurred mainly on dry soils usually favorable for terricolous lichens. We conclude that planting P. contorta on soils suitable for terricolous lichens is likely to reduce forage availability for reindeer and turn habitats earlier preferred by reindeer into avoided habitat, resulting in an overall reduction of winter grazing grounds. The effects of stands with P. contorta, albeit covering a comparatively small percentage of the reindeer husbandry area, need to be seen in context with generally declining terricolous lichen abundance due to land uses like forestry and other cumulative effects by external pressures on reindeer husbandry.

The semi-domesticated nature of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) makes it a distinct case among the world's herbivores. Here, we review the literature on how reindeer shape vegetation and soil carbon and nitrogen cycles in northernmost Fennoscandia. We first describe main historical events that shaped the present-day grazing patterns in the different countries, then discuss the methodological considerations needed for interpreting evidence from grazer exclosures in ecological and environmental contexts. We argue that it is critical to be aware that these experiments do not measure the effect of grazing per se, but rather, they measure the responses of existing ecosystem structure and function to the sudden cessation of grazing in an environment, which was to a large degree shaped by it. Studies show that the direction and the magnitude of the effects of reindeer on vegetation and soil processes vary across habitats and depend on both the current land-uses and the historically formed grazing regimes; knowledge of the history is thus a key prerequisite for understanding the role of reindeer in ecosystems. As a general trend, reindeer affect soil nutrient cycles to a stronger extent in subarctic than in boreal ecosystems. In sites where reindeer have changed soil nutrient availability, they indirectly modify vegetation and productivity even after the cessation of grazing. We reason that the concepts of cultural and natural landscapes are not mutually exclusive in the case of reindeer ranges. Understanding how the intensity and seasonal timing of both past and present grazing direct ecosystem changes under climate warming is crucial for predicting future ecosystem structures and functioning in northern Fennoscandia as well as ecosystems in general.

The global challenges that humanity faces are addressed in various global agreements, such as the Paris Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity. However, all global goals require local implementation and must be locally accepted. Adaptation and transformation will claim large land resources, such as infrastructures, wind farms, mines and intense land use for bioenergy. This may exacerbate already existing conflict over land use and the rights to resources, not least in northern peripheral areas. Reindeer pastoralism is affected by all of these interwoven processes, which gives a need for more holistic regional land use planning. This chapter summarizes some of the factors that have contributed to a lack of such planning and points to the importance of including reindeer herders as ‘rightsholders’ and their traditional knowledge in a transition to a just and sustainable society.

Pastoralist societies have developed customary institutions to respond to an unpredictable environment and fluctuation in grazing resources for their livestock. This chapter describes how reindeer herders’ customary institutions, including laws, norms and rights embedded in social networks, as well as traditional knowledge, structure these responses. Furthermore, it analyses how reindeer herders’ customary institutions are integrated into state governance of natural resources or recognized in national legislation. Central to the chapter is the Sámi siida and the corresponding Finnish tokkakunta – both represent customary herding groups that seek to balance the relationship between human–reindeer units to the spatial and temporal availability of grazing resources. The need for revitalization and a better understanding of reindeer herders’ customary institutions is identified, as well as an increased recognition of their traditional knowledge in resource management and land use planning to increase the resilience of reindeer husbandry to the cumulative challenges of climate change and resource extraction.

Reindeer husbandry has a long history of sharing landscapes with a multitude of other forms of land use. By competing for space, industrial resource developments from the early 20th century onwards have affected where, when and how the landscape can be used for reindeer grazing. Extending from the local to the landscape level, these impacts can reduce pastures either directly or indirectly as a result of increasing landscape fragmentation or changing reindeer behaviour. Furthermore, environmental drivers influence the dynamics of forage availability or accessibility for reindeer. The observed trend of shrinking pastures in the three countries is caused by these cumulative impacts. As a consequence, grazing pressure on the remaining pastures increases, and it curtails reindeer herders’ options to respond to the challenges of climate change. Reversing the continuing decrease in pastures requires the restoration of grazing resources and increasing landscape connectivity to facilitate movement and grazing rotation. However, socio-political incentives are also required to sustain reindeer pastures in the future. This includes an increase in the influence of reindeer herders on land use decisions and the inclusion of their traditional ecological knowledge of pasture management to identify alternative approaches to natural resource management.

Reindeer and reindeer herders in the circumpolar North are exposed to harsh and often hard-to-predict weather conditions. Herding communities have previously adapted to these external disturbances by flexible pasture use, seasonal mobility, changing herding practices, diversifying livelihoods and continuously developing traditional or experience-based knowledge. However, few places in the world experience ongoing climate change as clearly and rapidly as the high northern latitudes. The effects of climate change and increased frequency of extreme weather events are transforming the biophysical environment of reindeer husbandry. These changes challenge the adaptive capacity of herders who operate in a landscape they share with, and which is highly impacted by, other forms of land use. Thus, sociopolitical factors play a major role in developing adaptation strategies that are perceived as desirable and possible. This chapter summarizes the observed and expected changes in climate and impacts thereof within the reindeer herding area (RHA) of northern Fennoscandia. The chapter further presents a range of strategies adopted by herders to cope with adverse, seasonal weather conditions and indirect impacts of climate change. Finally, it situates these strategies in the context of more proactive and institutional adaptation.