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In this paper, we discuss problems of comparing two European cultures in a study of emotional intelligence by relying on traditional back translation of the questionnaire and the scales used in the study (Holmström, Molander, & Takšić, 2008; Molander, Holmström, & Takšić, 2009, 2011). We compared Croatian and Swedish university students in using The Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire, which is an original Croatian questionnaire (Takšić, 1998; Takšić, Mohorić, & Duran, 2009) based on the emotional intelligence theory of Mayer and Salovey (1997). Initially, we found small differences in responding to emotional items between the two countries as revealed by traditional statistical methods. Here we illustrate a large increase of the initial differences by applying differential item functioning (DIF) procedures (Zumbo, 1999), and then reducing again differences by taken several important steps in analyzing the translated items. Most important in these latter procedures was a new translation to Swedish by a native Croatian-speaking translator.

Differential Item Functioning (DIF) exists if an item is more difficult or discriminating for one group of participants than for another. When translating items into other languages a DIF analysis is especially valuable for evaluating the agreement among items translated into different languages. Different approaches to measure DIF will be reviewed and commented. Some results on the relationship between DIF analyses on the Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ). It is self-rating instrument developed in Croatian settings. The questionnaire consists of 45 items and three scales: Perceive and Understand, Express and Label, and Manage and Regulate. Responses are given in accordance with a 5-point Likert scale. The ESCQ has been translated to a number of languages in four continents (Europe, Asia, North and South America). In the present context special focus is directed to problems related to translation and adaptation of the instrument from Croatian to Swedish.

In many sports it is highly important to attain skills to judge and regulate the perceived force needed for the execution of motor actions. In the present paper it is emphasized that, while more research on these issues is sorely needed, there are psychophysical methods available to handle force. The putting shot in golf is used as an example, and it is shown how one of the psychophysical scales, the Borg CR100 scale^®, functions in laboratory as well as field conditions. Detailed recommendations to players, instructors, and sport psychology practitioners are given for how to use the Borg scale in practice and in games, and it is concluded that such a scale is likely to be useful in many other sports as well.

Studies investigating the regulation of force of motor actions are scarce, and particularlyso in the area of sports. This is surprising, considering that in most sports precise forceis of great importance. The current study demonstrates how a psychophysical scale, theBorg CR100 scale® (Borg and Borg, 2001), can be used to assess subjective force aswell as regulate force in putting. Psychophysical functions were calculated on the relationships between judgments of force using the CR100 scale and the length of puttingshots, examined in a laboratory setting, where 44 amateur golfers played on both flatand uphill surfaces. High agreement and consistency between CR 100 ratings and distancesputted was demonstrated. No significant differences in handling the scale wereobserved between younger (mean age 37 years) and older (mean age 69 years) playersor between players of different skill level. This study provides a new innovative use of anexisting instrument, the Borg CR 100 scale®, in order to understand the regulation of forceneeded for putts of various lengths and surfaces. These results and the potential futurebenefits of the psychophysical approach in golf are discussed.

This talk presents a study of the Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ; Takšić, 1998), where scores from five countries (Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Finland and Sweden) were compared. Participants were 1.978 university students. Comparisons were performed on total scores (45 items), as well as on the three subscales Perceive and Understand (15 items), Express and Label (14 items), and Manage and Regulate (16 items). In addition, all countries were compared for item bias, i.e., differential item functioning (DIF). Analyses of DIF were performed according to a model based on ordinal logistic regression. Results from these analyses and comparisons are presented. In particular, the talk is focused on the relationships among the five countries with respect to number of biased items and scores on ESCQ, as well as the relationships between number of biased items and ratings obtained from the World Value Survey (Inglehart & Welzel, 2011). Implications for future cross-cultural studies of the ESCQ instrument are discussed.

In a study of the Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire instrument (ESCQ; Takšić,1998) three samples of university students from Balkan countries (Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia) were contrasted with two samples of university students from Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden). In total, 1978 students participated. Effects of country and gender were obtained from the ESCQ total scores, as well as from the subscale scores. The subsequent analyses of item bias, that is, differential item functioning (DIF), revealed a number of DIF items in pair wise comparisons of the samples, thus creating doubts about the fairness in comparing mean scores. Further analyses of the DIF items showed, however, that most of the item curve functions were uniform, and that effect sizes were low. It was also shown that the number of DIF items depended on which countries were compared. Spearman correlations between measures of number of DIF items and cultural values as measured by World Value Survey data were very high. Implications of these findings for future cross-cultural studies of the ESCQ instrument are discussed.