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It has been proposed that morphological knowledge facilitates the integration of sublexical and lexical codes in both word reading and spelling and mediates the transition from reliance on sublexical cues to lexical cues during early literacy development (Bahr et al., 2020). However, the specific stage at which morphology begins to influence reading and spelling remains unclear, as does the question of whether there are differences across languages (Landerl et al., 2022). In the present study, we explore the extent to which morphology may explain, in addition to the already known predictors of phonemic awareness (PA) and rapid automatic naming (RAN), individual variations in word reading and spelling within two groups of Swedish-speaking children identified with word reading difficulties (n = 77) and as typical reading (n = 59), respectively, in Grade 2. All children participated in standardized assessments of PA, RAN, morphological awareness (MA), vocabulary, word reading, and spelling at the beginning of Grade 2. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to investigate whether MA explained any additional variance within the dependent variables of word reading and spelling when controlling for word-reading group, PA, and RAN. As independent variables, word-reading group, PA, and RAN were included at the first step and MA was added at the second step. MA was found to have only a modest influence on the variances for word reading and spelling when controlling for group, PA and RAN. In conclusion, this study of beginning readers and spellers in Swedish, confirms previous findings that PA makes the more substantial contribution to the variation within early word reading and spelling, with MA contributing only modestly. These results support the view that phonics should provide the primary instructional foundations, with MA serving as a complementary component during the first years of literacy instruction.

It has been proposed that morphological knowledge facilitates the integration of sublexical and lexical codes in both word reading and spelling and mediates the transition from reliance on sublexical cues to lexical cues during early literacy development (Bahr et al., 2020). However, the specific stage at which morphology begins to influence reading and spelling remains unclear, as does the question of whether there are differences across languages (Landerl et al., 2022). In the present study, we explore the extent to which morphology may explain, in addition to the already known predictors of phonemic awareness (PA) and rapid automatic naming (RAN), individual variations in word reading and spelling within two groups of Swedish-speaking children identified with word reading difficulties (n = 77) and typical reading (n = 59), respectively, in Grade 2. All children participated in standardized assessments of PA, RAN, morphological awareness (MA), vocabulary, word reading, and spelling at the beginning of Grade 2. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to investigate whether MA explained any additional variance within the dependent variables of word reading and spelling when controlling for word-reading group, PA, and RAN. As independent variables, word-reading group, PA, and RAN were included at the first step and MA was added at the second step. MA was found to have only a modest influence on the variances for word reading and spelling when controlling for group, PA and RAN. In conclusion, this study of beginning readers and spellers in Swedish, confirms previous findings that PA makes the more substantial contribution to the variation within early word reading and spelling, with MA contributing only modestly. These results support the view that phonics should provide the primary instructional foundations, with MA serving as a complementary component during the first years of literacy instruction.

In this study, we explore writing development from Grade 3 to 6 in four groups of students with varying reading abilities measured in a screening in Grade 2 as follows: students with (1) poor word reading, (2) poor reading comprehension, (3) mixed difficulties, and (4) typical reading. The written texts were collected from the narrative writing assignments in the National Assessment Tests in Swedish (L1) in Grades 3 and 6. The texts were analysed in relation to vocabulary diversity (VocD), narrative text quality (Narrative Scoring Scheme), and text length (total number of words). A mixed ANOVA was used to explore between-group differences and within-group changes in writing measures from Grades 3 to 6. A significant main effect for time was found for vocabulary diversity, narrative text quality, and text length, indicating a growth in writing performance for all groups from Grade 3 to 6. There were no significant interaction effects between group and time. Furthermore, there was a significant main effect for group on all three written text measures. Post-hoc analyses revealed significant differences between the groups with typical reading and mixed difficulties on all written text measures. The results will be discussed in relation to the varying reading abilities among the four reading profiles and in relation to possible educational implications.

Writers with decoding and/or spelling difficulties often produce short, lower-quality texts and experience less fluent writing, frequently interrupted by long pauses at the word level. Research suggests that from adolescence onward, such writers become increasingly aware of their difficulties, which influences behaviours such as avoiding difficult-to-spell words and pausing for lexical decisions. The objective of this study was to deepen the understanding of how adolescent students with decoding and spelling difficulties engage in the task of text composition. In this multiple case study, we qualitatively investigated argumentative texts and writing processes produced by three Swedish upper-secondary students with such difficulties. Data were collected through keystroke logging and analyses of texts and keystroke logs provided detailed insights into their individual writing approaches. The results generally align with previous findings but reveal notable differences depending on the severity of the difficulties. Two students with moderate challenges paused extensively to consider spelling, formulation, and word choice, while one student with more pronounced difficulties wrote rapidly and briefly to complete the task quickly. This nuanced analysis highlights the diversity of writing profiles among students with decoding and spelling difficulties and underscores the need for tailored support to help them produce higher-quality texts.

This longitudinal case study examines reading difficulties identified in Grade 2 and Grade 6 national assessment test (NAT) scores in relation to Grade 9 NAT in Swedish (L1) and English (L2). A norm-referenced screening was used in Grade 2 to assess word reading and reading comprehension. In line with the simple view of reading, four subgroups were identified: (1) Typical reading development, (2) Word reading difficulties, (3) Reading comprehension difficulties, and (4) Mixed difficulties. Results indicate that reading difficulties in primary school have long-standing implications for educational attainment in Swedish and English. In logistic regression models students with reading difficulties in Grade 2 and low Grade 6 NAT-scores had a higher probability to achieve low attainment levels in Grade 9. This implies that a norm-referenced screening in Grade 2 can be useful for identifying students at risk of low attainment in language subjects at the end of compulsory school.

This study explored writing processes in two languages (L1-Swedish and L2-English) and in two text types (argumentative and narrative) of 158 upper-secondary students by analysing keystroke logging data. The main aim of this study was to identify effective writing processes of argumentative and narrative tasks in L1 and L2. First, results of the mixed effects model analysis showed that students' typical writing processes displayed differences in timing, higher and lower order pauses, production speed, and revision depending on the language in which they wrote and the type of text they wrote. Secondly, using regression model analyses we explored which writing process patterns were positively related to text quality. By combining a reduced set of process measures, we identified effective writing process patterns. These patterns explained a rather substantial part of the variance in text quality, more precisely, between 56.1 % and 69.3 %. This study contributes to the current field of writing process studies by expanding our knowledge of typical and effective writing processes in argumentative and narrative writing in upper-secondary students' L1 and L2. These insights can be used to further shape writing education to support students’ writing across languages and text types.

Introduction: We examined the concurrent language and cognitive abilities in a group of Swedish students with different reading profiles in secondary school, and the retrospective (primary school) and prospective (upper-secondary school) reading skills of each reading profile.

Methods: Seventy-nine students participated in data collections in primary (grade 2: age 8), secondary (grade 8: age 14) and upper-secondary school (year 2: age 17). Independent variables included measures of word recognition, and vocabulary and text comprehension in secondary school. Dependent variables included measures of phonemic awareness, verbal fluency, listening comprehension, spelling, verbal working memory and nonverbal reasoning skills in secondary school, and word recognition and reading comprehension in primary and upper-secondary school.

Results: When exploring the concurrent language and cognitive abilities of the reading profiles in secondary school, spelling emerged as a weakness and listening comprehension as a strength for students with poor decoding. Students with poor comprehension experienced weaknesses in spelling, and non-verbal reasoning. Students with both poor decoding and comprehension displayed a multi-deficit profile in language and cognition. As regards the retrospective and prospective reading skills, the relative ranking of the reading profiles was rather consistent in both primary and upper-secondary school.

Discussion: The findings suggest that limitations in phonological awareness may not be a prominent feature of secondary school students with poor decoding in more transparent orthographies. From an educational perspective, spoken sources may support learning among students with poor decoding, whereas students with poor comprehension or combined difficulties in decoding and comprehension need support when learning from both spoken and written sources.