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Argumentation is a key skill in most school subjects and academic disciplines, including mathematics and science. It is possible that similarities and differences between how argumentation is expressed in different subjects can contribute to, or disrupt, students’ transferrable argumentation skills. The purpose of this study is therefore to increase the understanding of such similarities and differences concerning the use of argumentation in mathematics and science texts. To reach this goal, the study compares argumentation with a focus on argumentation markers and argumentative structures in first-semester university textbooks in mathematics, chemistry, and biology. Results show that common linguistic argumentation markers in mathematics and science textbooks include for example because, if, thus, so, and therefore and that there is significantly more argumentation in the mathematics textbook compared to the science textbooks. Further, the results indicate differences in patterns of how argumentation is used, including for example that the mathematics textbook contains more complex argumentation compared with the chemistry textbook. Thereby, the subject-specific languages in the disciplines have the potential to offer students different examples of argumentation.

Projektet fokuserar på förståelse och förklaringar av skalor som redskap i naturvetenskaps- undervisning. Skalor utgör en viktig del i naturvetenskapens olika områden, till exempel när små skalor används för att förstå kemiska och cellulära processer och stora skalor för att förstå astronomiska avstånd. Projektet är relevant för mellan- och högstadium samt för gymnasiets undervisning i naturvetenskapliga ämnen. 

I studien har olika grupper utfört en aktivitet där de rangordnat stora och små objekt. Objekten representerar till exempel universum, stjärna, planet, människa, virus och proton. Data samlades in genom deltagandeobservationer där forskaren ledde aktivitetens olika delar och förde gruppdiskussionen framåt genom frågor. Aktiviteten videofilmades och materialet analyserades med avseende på vilka strategier grupperna använde för att placera objekten på skalan såväl som att resonera om hur det kan förklaras för andra. Resultaten som presenteras i studien jämför doktorander inom rymdfysik och molekylärbiologi med en grupp lärarstudenter (blivande lärare i åk 4-6). Syftet är att utforska vilka olika strategier som används i hanteringen av uppgiften samt att beskriva eventuella skillnader mellan den grupp som har naturvetenskaplig expertkompetens och den grupp som har ett didaktiskt fokus med inriktning mot tidig naturvetenskapsutbildning.

Experterna inom rymdfysik och mikrobiologi tar sig an uppgiften genom att använda fem olika strategier: 1) att förankra objekt till kända siffror, objekt eller erfarenheter, 2) att använda analogier, 3) att behandla representationerna som ikoniska eller bildlika, 4) att relatera objekt genom inbäddning (nestedness, tex att DNA finns i en cell eller att celler bygger upp en människa), interaktion eller beräkningar, och slutligen 5) att förändra skalan. De vanligaste strategierna som experter använder för att förklara rumsliga skalor är analogier och anknytning till erfarenheter. Gruppen lärarstudenter tar sig an uppgiften på liknande sätt och använder liknande strategier som naturvetenskapsexperterna. De tar elevperspektivet (förklaringarna) tidigt och spontant, innan forskaren frågar om det, och spenderar mer tid att diskutera förklaringar. Lärarstudenterna använder få analogier men fler erfarenheter där de refererar till kropp, sinnen och upplevelser. Att referera till kroppsliga erfarenheter är något vi inte såg alls hos experterna. Lärarstudenterna gjorde fler misstag än experterna, särskilt när det gällde de små objekten. Det visar på vikten av samspel mellan faktakunskaper och användningen av strategierna för att komma framåt i processen. Experterna i rymdfysik använde logaritmisk skala, det gjorde varken mikrobiologerna eller lärarstudenterna.

Resultaten visar resonemang om små och stora objekt på skalor utifrån två perspektiv, naturvetenskapsexpertens och lärarstudentens. Strategier och skillnader mellan grupperna har betydelse för hur vi förbereder blivande lärare att stödja utvecklingen av elevers rumsliga tänkande och användning av skalor. Denna pilotstudie indikerar att vikten av att kombinera faktakunskaper och strategiska resonemang, utveckla möjligheter till kroppsliga och sinnliga upplevelser och erfarenheter, samt att ge konkreta redskap för att byta mellan linjär och logaritmisk skala är faktorer värda att utforska vidare. 

This study investigates how pre-service teachers engage with spatial scale reasoning through epistemic games - structured approaches to scientific inquiry and problem-solving. Three primary school pre-service teachers in their third year participated in an activity requiring them to arrange and explain the relative sizes of objects ranging from subatomic particles to astronomical bodies. Through qualitative analysis, we identified three major themes of epistemic games: Cognitive anchoring (using objects, numbers, or experiences as reference points), Object relatedness (understanding relationships through analogy, nestedness, and interaction), and Perspectives (considering contextual and representational viewpoints). While the pre-service teachers employed similar epistemic games as science experts from our previous research, they demonstrated unique engagement through their pedagogical expertise, particularly in considering contextual perspectives. However, the pre-service teachers made more errors than experts, especially when dealing with microscopic objects, despite using similar reasoning strategies. This suggests that the effectiveness of epistemic games depends on underlying conceptual knowledge. The findings have implications for how we prepare teachers to support spatial thinking development in students and highlight the importance of both strategic reasoning and accurate conceptual frameworks in spatial scale understanding.

Our project investigate how pre-service teachers and science experts (space physicists, chemists and biologists) engage with spatial scale reasoning through epistemic games - structured approaches to scientific inquiry and problem-solving. Spatial thinking is foundational to STEM success, yet understanding scales beyond direct human experience remains challenging for many learners (Tretter et al. 2006; Eriksson et al. 2014).Our studies involve four groups: primary school pre-service teachers, chemists, biologists and space physicists. Each group participates in a four-part game-based activity: arranging large astronomical objects by size, adding a human figure for scale reference, repeating the process with microscopic objects, and explaining their reasoning to a novice. Video recordings were analyzed using thematic analysis.We identified three major themes of epistemic games: Cognitive Anchoring, Object Relatedness, and Perspectives.While pre-service teachers employed similar epistemic games as science experts, they demonstrated unique engagement through pedagogical expertise, particularly in contextual perspectives. However, they made more errors with microscopic objects despite using similar reasoning strategies. This suggests that while epistemic games provide valuable reasoning tools, their effectiveness depends on underlying conceptual knowledge.Our findings have implications for teacher preparation programs and science programs, highlighting the need to strengthen both conceptual frameworks and strategic reasoning about spatial scales. This research contributes to understanding how future astronomy and science educators develop the spatial thinking skills that research has established as critical predictors of STEM success and scientific literacy in contexts ranging from the smallest to the largest structures known.

Det är svårt att bedöma elevers prestationer vid laborationer. Lärare behöver därför ett mångsidigt och likvärdigt betygsunderlag som tar hänsyn till elevernas kunskaper i de olika delarna av undersökande arbete. I den här texten lyfter vi exempel på redskap som kan stödja lärares bedömning genom att tydliggöra vilken kunskap som elever kan ge uttryck för i samband med systematiska undersökningar.

This white book presents the final recommendations and guidelines from the MULTIPLIERS project, directed at practitioners and policymakers. Its main objective is to support the successful integration of open-schooling practices across diverse geographical, cultural, and economic contexts to ensure accessible, high-quality science education for all. Through this white book, readers will find examples of complex socio-scientific issues tackled in the MULTIPLIERS project, providing valuable insights for anyone interested in initiating similar open-schooling projects. The project advances an operational definition of Open Schooling, aligning with three core objectives: community impact, pedagogical impact, and scientific impact, with a strong emphasis on foundational values.

The primary goal of the project is to expand science learning opportunities by promoting cooperative partnerships and establishing Open Science Communities (OSCs). Specifically, it aims to (1) enhance students’ interest in science, boost self-efficacy in science learning, and raise awareness of science careers by embedding real-life, open-school science learning projects in collaboration with science professionals and media experts into education; and (2) develop analytical and critical thinking skills in students, families, and the broader community to empower problemsolving and innovation.

This white book presents the final recommendations and guidelines from theMULTIPLIERS project, directed at practitionersand policymakers. Its main objective isto support the successful integration of open-schooling practices across diverse geographical, cultural, and economic contextsto ensure accessible, high-quality science education for all.

Through this white book, readers will find examples of complex socio-scientific issue stackled in the MULTIPLIERS project, providingvaluable insights for anyone interested ininitiating similar open-schooling projects.

The project advances an operational definition of Open Schooling, aligning with three core objectives: community impact, pedagogical impact, and scientific impact, with a strong emphasis on foundational values.

The primary goal of the project is to expand science learning opportunities by promoting cooperative partnerships and establishing Open Science Communities (OSCs). Specifically, it aims to (1) enhance students’interest in science, boost self-efficacy in science learning, and raise awareness of science careers by embedding real-life, open-school science learning projects in collaboration with science professionals and media experts intoeducation; and (2) develop analytical andcritical thinking skills in students, families, and the broader community to empower problem-solving and innovation.

Drawing on best practices in Open Schooling and the needs identified in partner countries, the MULTIPLIERS consortium has created a practical framework for implementing project activities through a structured teaching and learning sequence (TLS) comprising three phases:

Phase 1: Identifying and exploring socio-scientific issues(SSIs) relevant to the local community.

Phase 2: Engaging in an Open-School Science learningproject (OSS).

Phase 3: Students acting as multipliers.

For each phase of the TLS, this white book outlines specific recommendations and guidelines.

In addition, the MULTIPLIERS project has developed a sustainability model designed to promote long-term collaboration between schools and external partner organizations. This model supports the ongoing integrationof authentic science education into schools by establishing networks that connect formal education with real-world scientific expertise. The sustainability model rests on five key pillars: Communication, Coordination, Collaboration, Costs, and the Collection of Materials.

Spatial scales are fundamental for understanding many scientific phenomena and processes. Understanding small and large scales is at the same time something that is perceived as very difficult by students, risking limiting the interest for science; the subjects are simply seen as difficult. The purpose of this project is therefore to gain more knowledge about how and what semiotic resources can facilitate the understanding of spatial scales and thereby enhance the meaning-making of scientific phenomena and processes. We see this as imperative to create interest in science, something that is important both for having scientifically literate citizens and generating more engineers and doctors in science. In this case study we will investigate this by using exercises tailored for understanding spatial scales through semiotic resources. We have video recorded interviews of experts in molecular biology. These interviews are analyzed with a focus on scale aspects, and will contribute to insights into how the meaning-making of small and large spatial scales can be described and how it is communicated within the discipline. The results show that there are limited numbers of strategies used by the participants. The results will contribute to advices and guidelines for working with spatial scales in science teaching.

Key messages:

• Science lessons should foster a true scientific attitude and build students’ trust in science.
• Cultivating values supporting care and empathy is needed to meet global challenges.
• Motives and values are better internalised when the three basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness are met in the science classroom.