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We study the dynamics of the thermal O+ and H+ ions at Ganymede's magnetopause when Ganymede is inside and outside of the Jovian plasma sheet using a three-dimensional hybrid model of plasma (kinetic ions, fluid electrons). We present the global structure of the electric fields and power density (E ⋅ J) in the magnetosphere of Ganymede and show that the power density at the magnetopause is mainly positive and on average is +0.95 and +0.75 nW/m3 when Ganymede is inside and outside the Jovian plasma sheet, respectively, but locally it reaches over +20 nW/m3. Our kinetic simulations show that ion velocity distributions at the vicinity of the upstream magnetopause of Ganymede are highly non-Maxwellian. We investigate the energization of the ions interacting with the magnetopause and find that the energy of those particles on average increases by a factor of 8 and 30 for the O+ and H+ ions, respectively. The energy of these ions is mostly within 1–100 keV for both species after interaction with the magnetopause, but a few percentages reach to 0.1–1 MeV. Our kinetic simulations show that a small fraction ((Formula presented.) 25%) of the corotating Jovian plasma reach the magnetopause, but among those >50% cross the high-power density regions at the magnetopause and gain energy. Finally, we compare our simulation results with Galileo observations of Ganymede's magnetopause crossings (i.e., G8 and G28 flybys). There is an excellent agreement between our simulations and observations, particularly our simulations fully capture the size and structure of the magnetosphere.

Context: The plasma near the nucleus of a comet is subjected to an electric field to which a few different sources contribute: the convective electric field of the solar wind, the ambipolar electric field due to higher electron than ion speeds, and a polarisation field arising from the vastly different ion and electron trajectories.

Aims: Our aim is to show how the ambipolar and polarisation electric fields arise and develop under the influence of space charge effects, and in doing so we paint a qualitative picture of the electric fields in the inner coma of a comet.

Methods. We use an electrostatic particle-in-cell model to simulate a scaled-down comet, representing comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko with parameters corresponding to a 3.0 AU heliocentric distance.

Results: We find that an ambipolar electric field develops early in the simulation and that this is soon followed by the emergence of a polarisation electric field, manifesting itself as an anti-sunward component prevalent in the region surrounding the centre of the comet. As plasma is removed from the inner coma in the direction of the convectional electric field of the solar wind, a density maximum develops on the opposite side of the centre of the comet.

Conclusions: The ambipolar and polarisation electric fields both have a significant influence on the motion of cometary ions. This demonstrates the importance of space charge effects in comet plasma physics.

We study the release of various elements from Callisto's surface into its exosphere by plasma sputtering. The cold Jovian plasma is simulated with a 3‐D plasma‐planetary interaction hybrid model, which produces 2‐D surface precipitation maps for magnetospheric H⁺, O⁺, O⁺⁺, and S⁺⁺. For the hot Jovian plasma, we assume isotropic precipitation onto the complete spherical surface. Two scenarios are investigated: one where no ionospheric shielding takes place and accordingly full plasma penetration is implemented (no‐ionosphere scenario) and one where an ionosphere lets virtually none of the cold plasma but all of the hot plasma reach Callisto's surface (ionosphere scenario). In the 3‐D exosphere model, neutral particles are sputtered from the surface and followed on their individual trajectories. The 3‐D density profiles show that whereas in the no‐ionosphere scenario the ram direction is favored, the ionosphere scenario produces almost uniform density profiles. In addition, the density profiles in the ionosphere scenario are reduced by a factor of ∼2.5 with respect to the no‐ionosphere scenario. We find that the Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer, which is part of the Particle Environment Package on board the JUpiter ICy moons Explorer mission, will be able to detect the different sputter populations from Callisto's icy surface and the major sputter populations from Callisto's nonicy surface. The chemical composition of Callisto's exosphere can be directly linked to the chemical composition of its surface and will offer us information not only on Callisto's formation scenario but also on the building blocks of the Jupiter system.

Aims: The lack of an upstream solar wind plasma monitor when a spacecraft is inside the highly dynamic magnetosphere of Mercury limits interpretations of observed magnetospheric phenomena and their correlations with upstream solar wind variations.

Methods: We used AMITIS, a three-dimensional GPU-based hybrid model of plasma (particle ions and fluid electrons) to infer the solar wind dynamic pressure and Alfvén Mach number upstream of Mercury by comparing our simulation results with MESSENGER magnetic field observations inside the magnetosphere of Mercury. We selected a few orbits of MESSENGER that have been analysed and compared with hybrid simulations before. Then we ran a number of simulations for each orbit (~30–50 runs) and examined the effects of the upstream solar wind plasma variations on the magnetic fields observed along the trajectory of MESSENGER to find the best agreement between our simulations and observations.

Results: We show that, on average, the solar wind dynamic pressure for the selected orbits is slightly lower than the typical estimated dynamic pressure near the orbit of Mercury. However, we show that there is a good agreement between our hybrid simulation results and MESSENGER observations for our estimated solar wind parameters. We also compare the solar wind dynamic pressure inferred from our model with those predicted previously by the WSA-ENLIL model upstream of Mercury, and discuss the agreements and disagreements between the two model predictions. We show that the magnetosphere of Mercury is highly dynamic and controlled by the solar wind plasma and interplanetary magnetic field. In addition, in agreement with previous observations, our simulations show that there are quasi-trapped particles and a partial ring current-like structure in the nightside magnetosphere of Mercury, more evident during a northward interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). We also use our simulations to examine the correlation between the solar wind dynamic pressure and stand-off distance of the magnetopause and compare it with MESSENGER observations. We show that our model results are in good agreement with the response of the magnetopause to the solar wind dynamic pressure, even during extreme solar events. We also show that our model can be used as a virtual solar wind monitor near the orbit of Mercury and this has important implications for interpretation of observations by MESSENGER and the future ESA/JAXA mission to Mercury, BepiColombo.

We use data from the first two dayside seasons of the Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) mission to study current systems associated with quasi‐perpendicular bow shocks of generator type. We have analyzed 154 MMS bow shock crossings near the equatorial plane. We compute the current density during the crossings and conclude that the component perpendicular to the shock normal (J⊥) is consistent with a pileup of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) inside the magnetosheath. For predominantly southward IMF, we observe a component Jn parallel (antiparallel) to the normal for GSM Y> 0 (<0), and oppositely directed for northward IMF. This indicates current closure across the equatorial magnetosheath, and it is observed for IMF clock angles near 0∘ and 180∘. To our knowledge, these are the first observational evidence for bow shock current closure across the magnetosheath. Since we observe no clear signatures of |J⊥| decreasing toward large |Y| we suggest that the main region of current closure is further tailward, outside MMS probing region. For IMF clock angles near 90∘, we find indications of the current system being tilted toward the north‐south direction, obtaining a significant Jz component, and we suggest that the current closes off the equatorial plane at higher latitudes where the spacecraft are not probing. The observations are complicated for several reasons. For example, variations in the solar wind and the magnetospheric currents and loads affect the closure, and Jn is distributed over large regions, making it difficult to resolve inside the magnetosheath proper.

Aims. We wish to investigate the energy conversion between particles and electromagnetic fields and determine the location where it occurs in the plasma environment of comets.

Methods. We used a hybrid plasma model that included photoionization, and we considered two cases of the solar extreme ultraviolet flux. Other parameters corresponded to the conditions of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko at a heliocentric distance of 1.5 AU.

Results. We find that a shock-like structure is formed upstream of the comet and acts as an electromagnetic generator, similar to the bow shock at Earth that slows down the solar wind. The Poynting flux transports electromagnetic energy toward the inner coma, where newly born cometary ions are accelerated. Upstream of the shock-like structure, we find local energy transfer from solar wind ions to cometary ions. We show that mass loading can be a local process with a direct transfer of energy, but also part of a dynamo system with electromagnetic generators and loads.

Conclusions. The energization of cometary ions is governed by a dynamo system for weak ionization, but changes into a large conversion region with local transfer of energy directly from solar wind protons for high ionization.

Aims. We aim at analytically modelling the solar wind proton trajectories during their interaction with a partially ionised cometary atmosphere, not in terms of bulk properties of the flow but in terms of single particle dynamics.

Methods. We first derive a generalised gyromotion, in which the electric field is reduced to its motional component. Steady-state is assumed, and simplified models of the cometary density and of the electron fluid are used to express the force experienced by individual solar wind protons during the interaction.

Results. A three-dimensional (3D) analytical expression of the gyration of two interacting plasma beams is obtained. Applying it to a comet case, the force on protons is always perpendicular to their velocity and has an amplitude proportional to 1/r². The solar wind deflection is obtained at any point in space. The resulting picture presents a caustic of intersecting trajectories, and a circular region is found that is completely free of particles. The particles do not lose any kinetic energy and this absence of deceleration, together with the solar wind deflection pattern and the presence of a solar wind ion cavity, is in good agreement with the general results of the Rosetta mission.

Conclusions. The qualitative match between the model and the in situ data highlights how dominant the motional electric field is throughout most of the interaction region for the solar wind proton dynamics. The model provides a simple general kinetic description of how momentum is transferred between these two collisionless plasmas. It also shows the potential of this semi-analytical model for a systematic quantitative comparison to the data.

The bow shock is the first boundary the solar wind encounters as it approaches planets or comets. The Rosetta spacecraft was able to observe the formation of a bow shock by following comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko toward the Sun, through perihelion, and back outward again. The spacecraft crossed the newly formed bow shock several times during two periods a few months before and after perihelion; it observed an increase in magnetic field magnitude and oscillation amplitude, electron and proton heating at the shock, and the diminution of the solar wind further downstream. Rosetta observed a cometary bow shock in its infancy, a stage in its development not previously accessible to in situ measurements at comets and planets.

The presence or absence of a magnetic field determines the nature of how a planet interacts with the solar wind and what paths are available for atmospheric escape. Magnetospheres form both around magnetised planets, such as Earth, and unmagnetised planets, like Mars and Venus, but it has been suggested that magnetised planets are better protected against atmospheric loss. However, the observed mass escape rates from these three planets are similar (in the approximate (0.5–2) kg s⁻¹ range), putting this latter hypothesis into question. Modelling the effects of a planetary magnetic field on the major atmospheric escape processes, we show that the escape rate can be higher for magnetised planets over a wide range of magnetisations due to escape of ions through the polar caps and cusps. Therefore, contrary to what has previously been believed, magnetisation is not a sufficient condition for protecting a planet from atmospheric loss. Estimates of the atmospheric escape rates from exoplanets must therefore address all escape processes and their dependence on the planet’s magnetisation.

The solar wind interaction with Ceres is studied for a high water vapor release from its surface using a hybrid model including photoionization. We use a water vapor production rate of 6 kg/s, thought to be due to subsurface sublimation, corresponding to a detection on 6 March 2013 by the Herschel Space Observatory. We present the general morphology of the plasma interactions, both close to Ceres and on a larger scale. Mass loading of water ions causes a magnetic pileup region in front of Ceres, where the solar wind deflects up to 15 ∘ and slows down by 15%. The global plasma interaction with Ceres is not greatly affected by the source location of water vapor nor on gravity, only on the production rate of water vapor. On a global scale, Ceres has a comet-like interaction with the solar wind with observable perturbations farther than 250 Ceres radii downstream of the body.