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Four limestones were calcined in atmospheres containing moderate (∼30%) and high (∼100%) CO2 levels, and the carbonation characteristics of the quicklimes during cooling in these atmospheres were studied using thermogravimetric analysis. The carbonation rates, extents, and onset temperatures varied depending on the atmosphere and parent limestone type. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the quicklimes produced from sedimentary limestones exhibited larger pores and thicker structures, especially after calcination in the high CO2 atmosphere. The quicklimes produced from metamorphic limestones exhibited smaller pores among finer structures, with no major observed differences due to the different calcination atmospheres. However, the carbonation extents differed more in the quicklimes produced from metamorphic limestones after calcination in the different atmospheres, and their carbonation rates were also generally higher. Pore filling was observed in all carbonated quicklimes. Practically, the results indicate significant carbonation of all the tested quicklimes when cooling is conducted in atmospheres containing moderate or high levels of CO2. This has ramifications for processes where such conditions can occur, especially if excessive carbonation is unacceptable; e.g., in the cooling zone of electrified lime-based production kilns.

This study investigates heat transfer conditions and quantifies heat losses in a 150 kW rotary kiln with passing bed material. Measurements of gas and wall temperatures, gas compositions, and radiative heat transfer were conducted for propane combustion, oxygen-enriched propane, and resistance heating. Mass and energy balance results identify air leakage, flue gas losses, and surface heat losses as key heat loss mechanisms. For propane combustion, flue gas and surface losses accounted for 29 and 38% of total energy input, respectively. Oxygen-enriched propane reduced flue gas losses to 21%, while surface losses increased to 47% due to localized heat spots. Resistance heating provided uniform temperatures, with 52% surface losses and minimal 5% flue gas losses. Scaling analysis showed reduced surface losses at industrial scales─11% for propane, 12% for oxygen-enriched combustion, and 16% for electrification, while flue gas losses were 43, 19, and 5%, respectively. Energy transfer efficiency for calcination was quantified at 45% for propane and 60% for electrification. This work establishes a validated framework for measuring, quantifying, and scaling heat losses in rotary kilns.

This study investigates the effects of a high-CO₂ atmosphere on phase evolution, burnability, and clinker mineral formation in cement raw meals using high-temperature X-ray diffraction (HT-XRD). The cement industry is a significant CO₂ emitter, primarily from limestone decomposition and fuel combustion. Innovative solutions such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) are critical, with electrification and oxy-fuel combustion showing promise. Electrification using plasma technology, which employs CO₂ as a carrier gas, offers a pathway to near-zero emissions. Four industrial raw meals from northern Europe were analyzed under conventional (20% CO₂) and high-CO₂ (95% CO₂) conditions. Chemical composition, particle size distribution, and coarse fraction analyses preceded HT-XRD data collection across temperatures up to 1500 °C. High-CO₂ conditions delayed calcite decomposition, reducing free-CaO availability and altering burnability. The timing of calcite decomposition relative to C₂S formation suggests a reaction pathway in which free CaO, released from calcite, rapidly reacts with thermally activated SiO₂ to form C₂S. Additionally, spurrite decomposition released reactive CaO and C₂S, enhancing C₃S formation at 1300–1400 °C in spurrite-rich samples. Above 1400 °C, melt formation promoted further C₃S development, leading to similar final levels in both tested atmospheres. These findings indicate that high-CO₂ conditions significantly influence clinker phase evolution and reactivity. Practical implications include optimizing raw meal composition and kiln temperature profiles in electrified and oxy-fuel systems to enhance burnability while minimizing operational issues such as spurrite-induced kiln buildup. Future research should further explore industrial scalability and raw material adjustments to enhance CO₂ efficiency during clinkerization.

In the future, cement clinker formation is likely to take place in high temperatures and high carbon dioxide atmospheres in carbon-neutral production processes as part of, for example, electrified processes. The aim of this study was thus to compare the volatilisation of minor and trace elements during cement clinker formation in a high carbon dioxide atmosphere and a conventional combustion atmosphere. Raw meal samples were exposed, at high temperature, to the two different atmospheres, with elemental analysis performed before and after. For both atmospheres, the minor elements potassium and sulfur, and the trace elements rubidium, lead, thallium, caesium, cadmium and mercury were highly volatile. For most of the analysed elements, no difference was observed between the two atmospheres. However, volatilisation of potassium, sodium and sulfur was lower in the high carbon dioxide atmosphere. It is suggested that this should be further studied in relation to the molar ratio of sulfur to alkalis in the clinker and the effect on clinker quality.

Calcium looping (CaL) is a promising carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology that has the potential to significantly reduce CO₂ emissions in cement production. Integrating CaL with cement production provides a viable solution to the high CO₂ emissions generated during the calcination process. This study examines the behavior of two industrial cement raw meals from different sites (A-RM and B-RM) under CaL conditions, focusing on phase composition, particle size distribution, and clinker phase evolution up to 1450 °C. Calcination and CaL experiments were conducted in a CO2-rich atmosphere, with materials characterized using quantitative X-ray diffraction (Q-XRD) and high-temperature X-ray diffraction (HT-XRD). The results showed that both raw meals absorbed similar amounts of CO₂ during the cyclic CaL experiments. A-RM formed C₂S and other silicates, while B-RM retained more free CaO due to a less effective reaction with coarser quartz (SiO₂) particles. HT-XRD revealed delayed clinker-phase evolution in the 1000–1400 °C range in CaL-treated raw meals. However, CaL-treated raw meals achieved low free CaO at 1450 °C, suggesting that optimal kiln conditions can produce the desired phase composition. These findings indicate that integrating CaL-treated raw meals into cement production requires careful optimization of operational parameters to maintain clinker quality and minimize energy consumption. Further research should focus on improving the efficiency and reactivity of CaL-treated raw meals to enhance their suitability for industrial cement production.

Natural limestones as raw material for OPC clinker manufacturing contribute to emissions of CO2gases during the production of clinker. In addition, the mining of limestone can regionally be controlledby restrictions due to environmental concerns. Slags from the steel industry can replace limestone tominimize the use of the mineral deposits. Both materials have similar chemistry and are compatible asraw materials.Utilizing slags raises questions about how slag particles will react with other raw meal components asthe temperature in the kiln increases during clinker formation. This study establishes the chemical andmineralogical aspects of replacing a portion of the limestone with slags. Of interest is how the materialsreact during the formation of the liquid phase and the formation of phases containing MgO.Three different slags were examined, a basic oxygen furnace slag BOF, a crystalline blast-furnace slagand a granulated blast-furnace slag. In the study, the microstructural causes of reactivity, as well asmineral formation in the transition zone between raw meal components, developing liquid phase andslag particles were studied. Heated raw meals were studied using HT-QXRD, QXRD, SEM andthermodynamic modeling to describe the reactions of particles at higher temperatures. The resultsshow that the formation of clinker minerals is strongly influenced by the type and amount of slag. Thus,a careful selection must be done of both composition and quantity of metallurgical slags for naturallimestone replacement in order to maintain clinker quality.

Transformative actions in CO2 emitting industries are needed to reach the Paris climate agreement.The cement industry, which is responsible for 5-7% of the global CO2 emissions, has the possibility tomake a difference.Cement production is related to two sources of CO2; 1/3 from combustion of fuels and 2/3 fromcalcination of limestone in the cement raw meal. If all the fuels were to be substituted with non-fossilelectricity, the environmental gain would be significant. Cementa and Vattenfall are evaluatingpossibilities on how electricity can be used to substitute fuels in the cement production by 2030.By using electricity for heating, several positive effects are achieved in the production process. Thecleanness of the exhaust gas will be higher due to elimination of volatiles from fuels. The energyconsumption decreases due to lesser volume of gas to be heated. This is related to the exclusion ofnitrogen gas in the process.A feasibility study comprising literature survey and small scale tests have been performed. Electricalheating techniques showing potential are; microwave heating, plasma torches, flash calcination withelectrical heating, hydrogen combustion and a combination of the mentioned techniques.The most relevant finding is that the combustion related CO2 emissions will be eliminated; thecapturing step will be enhanced since the CO2 gas from calcination is clean and accordingly the needof storage or utilization of CO2 is decreased.

This paper describes the formation of a phosphorous belite solid solution and its impact on alite formation. A sub-solidus phase relation for the ternary system silicon dioxide–calcium oxide–phosphorus pentoxide (SiO₂–CaO–P₂O₅) is reported. The ternary system is based on Rietveld refinements of X-ray diffraction patterns from experimental tests. The overall picture is based on known phase diagrams, relevant Rietveld refinements models, stoichiometric relationships as a function of increasing phosphorus pentoxide concentration and vacancy theories for solid solutions of phosphate belites. A tool is developed for predicting the chemistry of the product as well as the chemistry during heating when producing Portland cement clinker. A thermodynamic database for phase chemistry calculations of clinkering reactions has been created and evaluated. Suitable compounds and solution species have been selected from the thermochemical database included in FactSage software. Some solution compositions have been uniquely designed to allow for the proper prediction of the cement clinker chemistry. The calculated results from the developed database for heating raw materials in cement clinker production and cooling of the product are presented in this paper. The calculated results provide a good prediction of the phases and quantities formed during heating and non-equilibrium cooling. The prediction of the amounts of alite, belite and aluminoferrite phases in the product according to the Scheil method is good. The temperature interval for the existence of all of the major phases is relevant. The thermodynamic data for a solution phase of alite with substituting ions of primarily magnesium oxide and phosphorus pentoxide would improve the predictability of the developed database.