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Adventitious rooting is a de novo organogenesis process that enables plants to propagate clonally and cope with environmental stresses. Adventitious root initiation (ARI) is controlled by interconnected transcriptional and hormonal networks, but there is little knowledge of the genetic and molecular programs orchestrating these networks. Thus, we have applied genome-wide transcriptome profiling to elucidate the transcriptional reprogramming events preceding ARI. These reprogramming events are associated with the down-regulation of cytokinin (CK) signaling and response genes, which could be triggers for ARI. Interestingly, we found that CK free base (iP, tZ, cZ, and DHZ) content declined during ARI, due to down-regulation of de novo CK biosynthesis and up-regulation of CK inactivation pathways. We also found that MYC2-dependent jasmonate (JA) signaling inhibits ARI by down-regulating the expression of the CYTOKININ OXIDASE/DEHYDROGENASE1 (CKX1) gene. We also demonstrated that JA and CK synergistically activate expression of the transcription factor RELATED to APETALA2.6 LIKE (RAP2.6L), and constitutive expression of this transcription factor strongly inhibits ARI. Collectively, our findings reveal that previously unknown genetic interactions between JA and CK play key roles in ARI.

Adventitious root initiation (ARI) is ade novoorganogenesis program and a key adaptive trait in plants. Several hormones regulate ARI but the underlying genetic architecture that integrates the hormonal crosstalk governing this process remains largely elusive. In this study, we use genetics, genome editing, transcriptomics, hormone profiling and cell biological approaches to demonstrate a crucial role played by the APETALA2/ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR 115 transcription factor. We demonstrate that ERF115 functions as a repressor of ARI by activating the cytokinin (CK) signaling machinery. We also demonstrate thatERF115is transcriptionally activated by jasmonate (JA), an oxylipin-derived phytohormone, which represses ARI in NINJA-dependent and independent manners. Our data indicate that NINJA-dependent JA signaling in pericycle cells blocks early events of ARI. Altogether, our results reveal a previously unreported molecular network involving cooperative crosstalk between JA and CK machineries that represses ARI.

The root system and its architecture enormously contribute to plant survival and adaptation to the environment. Depending on the intrinsic genetic information and the surrounding rhizosphere, plants develop a highly plastic root system, which is a critical determinant for survival. Plant root system, which includes primary root (PR), lateral roots (LR) and adventitious roots (AR), is shaped by tightly controlled developmental programs. Phytohormones are the main signaling components that orchestrate and coordinate the genetic information and the external stimuli to shape the root system patterning or rhizotaxis. Besides their role in plant stress responses and defense against herbivory and pathogen attacks, jasmonic acid and its derivatives, including the receptor-active conjugate jasmonoyl-L-isoleucine (JA-Ile), emerge as potential regulators of rhizotaxis. In this chapter, we summarize and discuss the recent progress achieved during the recent years to understand the JA-mediated genetic and molecular networks guiding PR, LR, and AR initiation. We highlight the role of JAs as critical integrators in shaping rhizotaxis.

Vegetative propagation relies on the capacity of plants to regeneratede novoadventitious roots (ARs), a quantitative trait controlled by the interaction of endogenous factors, such as hormones and environmental cues among which light plays a central role. However, the physiological and molecular components mediating light cues during AR initiation (ARI) remain largely elusive. Here, we explored the role of red light (RL) on ARI in de-rooted Norway spruce seedlings. We combined investigation of hormone metabolism and gene expression analysis to identify potential signaling pathways. We also performed extensive anatomical characterization to investigate ARI at the cellular level. We showed that in contrast to white light, red light promoted ARI likely by reducing jasmonate (JA) and JA-isoleucine biosynthesis and repressing the accumulation of isopentyl-adenine-type cytokinins. We demonstrated that exogenously applied JA and/or CK inhibit ARI in a dose-dependent manner and found that they possibly act in the same pathway. The negative effect of JA on ARI was confirmed at the histological level. We showed that JA represses the early events of ARI. In conclusion, RL promotes ARI by repressing the accumulation of the wound-induced phytohormones JA and CK.

Adventitious rooting is a post-embryonic developmental program governed by a multitude of endogenous and environmental cues. Auxin, along with other phytohormones, integrates and translates these cues into precise molecular signatures to provide a coherent developmental output. Auxin signaling guides every step of adventitious root (AR) development from the early event of cell reprogramming and identity transitions until emergence. We have previously shown that auxin signaling controls the early events of AR initiation (ARI) by modulating the homeostasis of the negative regulator jasmonate (JA). Although considerable knowledge has been acquired about the role of auxin and JA in ARI, the genetic components acting downstream of JA signaling and the mechanistic basis controlling the interaction between these two hormones are not well understood. Here we provide evidence that COI1-dependent JA signaling controls the expression of DAO1 and its closely related paralog DAO2. In addition, we show that the dao1-1 loss of function mutant produces more ARs than the wild type, probably due to its deficiency in accumulating JA and its bioactive metabolite JA-Ile. Together, our data indicate that DAO1 controls a sensitive feedback circuit that stabilizes the auxin and JA crosstalk during ARI.

In Arabidopsis thaliana, canonical auxin-dependent gene regulation is mediated by 23 transcription factors from the AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR (ARF) family that interact with auxin/indole acetic acid repressors (Aux/IAAs), which themselves form co-receptor complexes with one of six TRANSPORT INHIBITOR1/AUXIN-SIGNALLING F-BOX (TIR1/AFB) proteins. Different combinations of co-receptors drive specific sensing outputs, allowing auxin to control a myriad of processes. ARF6 and ARF8 are positive regulators of adventitious root initiation upstream of jasmonate, but the exact auxin co-receptor complexes controlling the transcriptional activity of these proteins has remained unknown. Here, using loss-of-function mutants we show that three Aux/IAA genes, IAA6, IAA9, and IAA17, act additively in the control of adventitious root (AR) initiation. These three IAA proteins interact with ARF6 and/or ARF8 and likely repress their activity in AR development. We show that TIR1 and AFB2 are positive regulators of AR formation and TIR1 plays a dual role in the control of jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis and conjugation, as several JA biosynthesis genes are up-regulated in the tir1-1 mutant. These results lead us to propose that in the presence of auxin, TIR1 and AFB2 form specific sensing complexes with IAA6, IAA9, and/or IAA17 to modulate JA homeostasis and control AR initiation.

To adapt to the ever-changing rhizosphere conditions, land plants evolved a sophisticated root system. The genetic determinants of the root system establishment have been the targets of natural selection, resulting in a very complex but robust molecular networks and circuits. These networks provide the plant with precise cell-fate and developmental decisions. The plant root system consists of primary root, lateral roots and often adventitious roots (ARs). ARs derive from the aboveground organs in response to either intrinsic developmental cues or in response to the environmental ones. AR formation is a pre-requisite step for vegetative propagation, which is widely used to multiply elite genotypes in forestry and agriculture. The main focus of this study is to unravel the molecular networks controlling AR initiation (ARI) using the intact-etiolated Arabidopsis hypocotyl as a model system. Previous data from our laboratory showed that ARI in Arabidopsis is controlled by a crosstalk between the positive regulator auxin (IAA) and the negative regulator jasmonate (JA). First, combining genetic, biochemical and hormonomics approaches, we identified the auxin coreceptor complexes involved in ARI. We found that IAA is perceived by two F-box proteins (TRANSPORT INHIBITOR1/AUXIN-SIGNALLING F-BOX (TIR1) and its closest homolog AFB2 as well as three Auxin/Inodole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA) repressors (IAA6, IAA9 and IAA17). These coreceptor proteins possibly act in combinatorial manner to fine-tune the auxin signaling machinery during ARI. In addition, in a genetic screen, we also revealed that the COP9 SIGNALOSOME SUBUNIT 4 (CSN4) protein plays a central role in ARI by modulating the function of the auxin perception machinery. Next, in silico search for genes acting downstream of JA involved in ARI, we retrieved the recently characterized DIOXYGENASE FOR AUXIN OXIDATION (DAO1) and DAO2 genes. The DAOs encode for enzymes that catalyze the conversion of free IAA into 2-oxindole-3-acetic acid (oxIAA), a rate-limiting step in auxin degradation. We found that the DAO1 gene mediates a molecular circuit to stabilize the interaction between IAA and JA. Combining genetics, genome-wide transcriptome profiling, hormononics and cell biological approaches, we found that MYC2-mediated JA signaling controls the expression of the ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR 115 (ERF115) gene, which is a repressor of ARI. Our genetic data revealed that ERF115-mediated ARI inhibition requires cytokinins (CKs). CKs have long been established as inhibitors of ARI. Altogether, ARI seems to be controlled by a complex molecular network guided by three hormonal pathways (IAA, JA and CK), in which JA-induced ERF115 plays a role of "molecular switch".

Plants have evolved sophisticated root systems that help them to cope with harsh environmental conditions. They are typically composed of a primary root and lateral roots (LRs), but may also include adventitious roots (ARs). Unlike LRs, ARs may be initiated not only from pericycle cells, but from various cell types and tissues depending on the species. Phytohormones, together with many other internal and external stimuli, coordinate and guide every step of AR formation from the first event of cell reprogramming until emergence and outgrowth. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the molecular mechanisms controlling AR formation and highlight the main hormonal cross talk involved in its regulation under different conditions and in different model systems.

Pistachio tree (Pistacia vera L.) is among the tree species that are most tolerant to salinity stress. In the present investigation, we analyzed the behavior of two pistachio genotypes (Badami-e-Zarand (BZ) and Badami-e-Sefid (BS)) under different NaCl concentrations to reveal the mechanisms involved in salinity tolerance. A greater decline in several growth-related traits and biomass as well as relative water content was observed in BS seedlings than in BZ seedlings. Proline content, which is an indicator of stress, increased in both genotypes. Salinity induced oxidative stress in both genotypes, but the levels were higher for the BS genotype. The negative impact of salinity on photosynthetic process in BS was represented by a remarkable decrease in total chlorophyll and carotenoids, while the better performance of the BZ genotype under high salinity was accompanied by an increase in the activities of ascorbate peroxidase, catalase and guaiacol peroxidase. A significant increase in the superoxide dismutase activity in the leaves of BZ was observed under moderate salinity treatment. In both genotypes, Na+ content in leaf and root tissues increased progressively after salinity treatment. However, the leaves of BZ contained less Na+ and retained a lower Na+/K+ ratio. Moreover, under salinity treatment, BZ seedlings had a greater amount of NHX1 transcripts, which suggests that excess Na+ may be sequestered into root vacuoles to avoid deleterious effects of these toxic ions.