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Employing a qualitative approach for data collection and analysis, this research focuses on 50 multilingual families, with ten from each country. The study explores the role of English as a third language (L3) in both endogamous and exogamous multilingual families with immigrant and minority backgrounds across Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden. Additionally, it examines the impact of English on family language practices, its effects on Russian as a heritage language, on the majority country language(s), and on (online) education, as well as on (digital) literacy skills. The findings, based on the thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with mothers, highlight the importance of English as an L3 in the context of the majority language and Russian as a heritage language. This emphasises parents’ recognition of English as crucial for their children’s future success and the significance of English education for academic achievement. The study underscores the evolving role of English in multilingual families, by putting emphasis on the need for continued exploration of language practices, proficiency development, and the broader impact on family language policies. We advocate for further investigation into the influence of social and technological factors to enhance understanding of language dynamics in diverse multicultural contexts.

This study explores language shifts in multilingual families during the COVID-19 pandemic across Cyprus, Germany, Israel, and Sweden, employing the Family Language Policy (FLP) framework. It addresses critical gaps in FLP literature by examining how external disruptions affect the maintenance and sustainability of minority home language (HL) and country language (CL). The study provides new perspectives on the flexibility of FLP in rapidly changing environments. Data were collected via an online survey for 807 multilingual children across four countries: Cyprus (n = 74), Germany (n = 291), Israel (n = 370), and Sweden (n = 92). Participants reported speaking 39 different mother tongues; their partners reported 41. Russian emerged as the most common HL, spoken by 50% of respondents and 36% of spouses. We evaluated language shifts in caregivers and children, noting no significant change in Cyprus, while respondents in Germany, Israel, and Sweden reported increased HL use. Using network analysis, we revealed complex interdependencies among factors influencing HL and CL shifts. In HL-Russian families, child community language proficiency and home activity engagement were most influential. In other HL groups, respondent–child interaction was central. These findings advance FLP theory and demonstrate the broader impact of crises on language practices, underscoring the need for adaptive, supportive language policies.

This study explores translanguaging as a flexible and adaptive strategy for heritage language transmission within multilingual families residing in Cyprus, Estonia, and Sweden. Using a qualitative approach, the research examines family language policies, parental beliefs, and the linguistic practices of bilingual and multilingual families, where one parent speaks Russian. The findings reveal how translanguaging supports bilingual development by fostering linguistic adaptability, bridging heritage and societal languages, and accommodating diverse sociolinguistic contexts. Parents in each country implement unique strategies, influenced by local linguistic landscapes, educational systems, and resource availability. In Cyprus, some families strictly adhered to structured methods like the One Parent–One Language strategy, while others adopted a more integrative multilingual approach, seamlessly translanguaging between Russian, Greek, and English in their daily interactions. Estonian and Swedish families display pragmatic adaptations, emphasizing translanguaging’s role in promoting the emotional well-being and linguistic identity of family members. However, certain challenges persist, including societal language dominance, literacy and educational resource scarcity, and the potential overuse of translanguaging in formal communication. By comparing these contexts, the study underscores the need for flexible yet deliberate family language policies, institutional support, and community resources to sustain bilingualism in bilingual and multilingual families. This research contributes to understanding translanguaging’s implications for intergenerational language transmission in minority and immigrant settings, offering insights for educators, linguists, and policymakers on fostering linguistic diversity and equity in globalized societies.

This study examines translanguaging practices in Russian-speaking families in Cyprus, Estonia, and Sweden, demonstrating how multilingual family communication challenges societal norms. It shows that multilingual families do not operate within a single linguistic repertoire but rather navigate multiple languages simultaneously. Focusing on how language ideologies and policies shape linguistic interactions, we analyzed data from 60 immigrant and minority families. Our findings highlight diverse translanguaging strategies employed at home and in public spaces, reflecting local sociopolitical contexts. In Cyprus, translanguaging is supported by a robust Russian-speaking community infrastructure, contrasting with Estonia's shift toward integrating Russian within certain domains amid historical tensions. In Sweden, Russian-speaking families face greater linguistic isolation but exhibit adaptive strategies in multicultural settings. This research underscores translanguaging as a tool for challenging monolingual norms and affirming linguistic diversity. Through a comparative analysis, it advances our understanding of translanguaging dynamics across different societal and cultural landscapes, emphasizing the importance of contextualized language policies in multilingual societies.

This chapter investigates translanguaging practices of teachers of Russian as a heritage language based on observational and interview data collected in Cyprus, Estonia, and Sweden. The study attempts to understand the perceptions and beliefs of the teachers regarding translanguaging as a pedagogical practice in the context of multilingual classrooms. The chapter discusses systematic similarities and differences in the use of translanguaging by teachers in the teaching and learning of Russian as a heritage language in three distinct socio-cultural environments, while also making a broader case for the use of translanguaging as a resource in heritage language pedagogy. The analysis of data suggests that translanguaging is a prominent phenomenon in all classroom environments and that the socially dominant languages are used to convey or negotiate meaning, task, and identity. However, teachers in Cyprus seem to view translanguaging as a natural part of the students’ identity, while teachers in Sweden and Estonia view translanguaging mainly as a bridge to Russian language competency. The chapter discusses the potential for systematic and intentional use of translanguaging in the heritage language classroom.

Эта глава исследует транслингвистические практики учителей русского языка как языка наследия, основываясь на данных, полученных из наблюдения уроков и интервью с учителями на Кипре, в Эстонии и Швеции. Исследуются вопросы восприятия транслингвистических практик учителями в контексте преподавания русского как языка наследия. Глава обсуждает систематические сходства и различия в транслингвистических практиках учителей русского языка в трех различных социокультурных средах. Анализ данных показывает, что транслингвистические практики являются заметным явлением во всех трех странах и что социально доминирующие языки используются для передачи или обсуждения смысла слов и грамматики, обсуждения задач и как проявления идентичности. Однако учителя на Кипре видят транслингвизм как естественную часть идентичности студентов, в то время как учителя в Швеции и Эстонии рассматривают транслингвистические практики, главным образом, как мост к овладению русским языком. Авторы приводят аргументы в пользу использования транслингвизма как ресурса в педагогике родного языка, а также обсуждают потенциал систематического и намеренного использования транслингвистических практик на занятиях по наследственным языкам.

Forty-five Russophone families in Estonia, Germany and Sweden answered semi-structured questionnaires about their sociolinguistic characteristics and participated in in-depth interviews regarding language use, language transmission and maintenance, and attitudes to all these processes. This comparative analysis of the family context helps to explain the variation in the development of linguistic identities and language-use strategies. We identified clear similarities and differences between these families, especially regarding reported digital language practices among immigrant families. The data analysis showed that the use of digital technologies has an impact on the reported language practices among the families but not necessarily on the use of Russian as a heritage language. Most families highlighted the intensification of internet-based communication with extended family members and the supportive effect of digital technologies on intergenerational heritage language transmission, since younger family members gained more access to Russian via the internet. But the role of digital technologies alone is limited when it comes to intergenerational heritage language transmission and other factors, such as the efforts of parents and the agency of children, seem to be more important. Still, the joint use of digital technologies has a positive effect, especially in those families where the children are actively involved in digital communication.

The linguistic and cultural values of migrants, as well as their attitudes and behaviour, differ from those of the host society. All resources and values can be characterised as linguistic and cultural capital, which can provide migrants with certain advantages in their new country of settlement. A heritage language (HL) and knowledge about another culture are important components of this linguistic cultural capital. It is crucial for multi-generational families to maintain their HL and transmit the culture of their heritage to help individuals gain a better understanding of their own identity. This study aims to investigate the views, attitudes, and beliefs of second-generation migrants in Cyprus and Sweden in relation to their HL, linguistic and cultural capital, factors affecting HL use, maintenance, and development, as well as their future plans and aspirations regarding HL transmission. Narrative analysis of the semi-structured interviews revealed certain differences and similarities between the countries under investigation regarding the personal reflections of the participants and their perceptions regarding the role of family language policies, home literacy environments, child and parental agency, socio-emotional well-being, local context, and other internal and external factors influencing HL use, maintenance, and transmission. Storytelling proved to be an effective method of narrative inquiry, providing a deeper insight into the complex process of HL development and support. In addition, it offered participants an opportunity to reflect on their personality, language, and culture.

This study explored the language and literacy practices of multilingual families in Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study focuses on the different roles of family members in language transmission in order to understand whether these practices might have been influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic. We aimed to answer two key research questions: RQ1, whether and how the pandemic conditions affected the heritage language, societal language acquisition, and heritage language literacy learning environments in the five countries examined (Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden); and RQ2, what is the nature of child and parental agency in facilitation of the possible changes in the corresponding five countries? Fifty semi-structured interviews (ten in each country) were conducted. The data highlighted the factors that triggered changes in family language policy during the pandemic and the role of the child’s agency, parents, extended family, and social network during this period. Based on our findings, we argue that the pandemic conditions gave the children new opportunities for agency when it comes to language and literacy choice and communication with extended family members. This even facilitated new sources of input and suggested the active role of a child as an agent in shaping family language policy in the family.

This chapter focuses on Russian and its heritage language use, maintenance and transmission in Cyprus (which shares the Eastern Orthodox religion with Russia), in Estonia (part of the USSR until 1991) and Sweden (a somewhat neutral country vis-à-vis the USSR and Russia). Drawing on theoretical issues of family language policy, we investigated multilingual families, consisting of majority language (MajL)-speaking and Russian-speaking members, examining whether Russian is maintained and transferred to the next generation. Under ‘multilingual family’, we include four situations: (1) a Russian speaker and a MajL speaker, (2) a Russian-MajL mixed speaker and a MajL speaker, (3) both parents are Russian-MajL mixed speakers (common in Estonia) and (4) both parents are Russian speakers (more common in Cyprus). Our results show the discrepancies between the desired and valid efforts and choices in Russian-language transmission. We examined how these phenomena occurred and what practical issues and societal factors affected the Russian language in the (home) lives of the families.