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Pore-forming toxins (PFTs) are recognized as major virulence factors produced by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. While the effects of PFTs have been extensively investigated using mammalian cells as a model system, their interactions with the environmental host, Acanthamoeba castellanii remains less understood. This study employed high-throughput image screening (HTI), advanced microscopy, western blot analysis, and cytotoxicity assays to evaluate the impact of PFT-producing bacterial species on their virulence against A. castellanii. Our unbiased HTI data analysis reveals that the cyst induction of A. castellanii in response to various bacterial species does not correlate with the presence of PFT-producing bacteria. Moreover, A. castellanii demonstrates resistance to PFT-mediated cytotoxicity, in contrast to mammalian macrophages. Notably, Vibrio anguillarum and Ralstonia eutropha triggered a high frequency of cyst formation and cytotoxicity in infected A. castellanii. In summary, our findings reveal that A. castellanii exhibits a unique resistance to PFTs, unlike mammalian cells, suggesting its potential ecological role as a reservoir for diverse pathogenic species and its influence on their persistence and proliferation in the environment. (Figure presented.)

This study explores the virulence mechanisms of Vibrio cholerae, with a particular emphasis on HapA, a zinc metalloprotease delivered via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). The findings reveal that OMV-associated HapA disrupts the integrity of tight and adherens junctions in intestinal epithelial cell models more effectively than its purified counterpart, suggesting that association with OMVs substantially potentiates the pathogenic effects of HapA. The study further details the uptake of V. cholerae OMVs by epithelial cells, as well as their targeted degradation of key junctional proteins, including claudin, ZO-1, and ?-catenin. These results highlight the critical role of OMV-associated HapA in compromising epithelial barrier function. Additionally, the use of spheroids and intestinal organoids in our experiments provides deeper insight into bacterial pathogenesis, offering valuable information for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies.

Pathogenic serotypes of Vibrio cholerae, transmitted through contaminated water and food, are responsible for outbreaks of cholera, an acute diarrheal disease. While the cholera toxin is the primary virulence factor, V. cholerae also expresses other virulence factors, such as the tripartite toxin MakABE that is secreted via the bacterial flagellum. These three proteins are co-expressed with two accessory proteins, MakC and MakD, whose functions remain unknown. Here, we present the crystal structures of MakC and MakD, revealing that they are similar in both sequence and structure but lack other close structural relatives. Our study further investigates the roles of MakC and MakD, focusing on their impact on the expression and secretion of the components of the MakABE tripartite toxin. Through deletion mutant analysis, we found that individual deletions of makC or makD do not significantly affect MakA expression or secretion. However, the deletion of both makC and makD impairs the expression of MakB, which is directly downstream, and decreases the expression of MakE, which is separated from makCD by two genes. Conversely, MakA, encoded by the makA gene located between makB and makE, is expressed normally but its secretion is impaired. Additionally, our findings indicate that MakC, in contrast to MakD, exhibits strong interactions with other proteins. Furthermore, both MakC and MakD were observed to be localized within the cytosol of the bacterial cell. This study provides new insights into the regulatory mechanisms affecting the Mak protein family in V. cholerae and highlights the complex interplay between gene proximity and protein expression.

Pathogenic bacteria employ several secretion systems to release or inject virulence factors that may alter host cell processes, generate a replicative niche, and aid bacterial survival in adverse environments. This thesis presents my investigations on how bacterial factors can modulate host cell signalling mechanisms. 

We investigated possible signalling pathways involved in targets of the Vibrio cholerae protein MakA that was found to mediate inhibition of tumour cell proliferation. Caenorhabditis elegans grazing on MakA-producing bacteria revealed that MakA may affect lipid-mediated signalling in the nematodes by affecting the level of PPK-1, a homologue of eukaryotic PIP5K1α. We studied the possible effects of MakA on eukaryotic PIP5K1α in human colon cancer cell lines and found decreased levels of PIP5K1α and pAkt in the lipid-signalling pathway. Immunoblot analyses demonstrated that MakA inhibited cyclin-dependent kinase 1 and increased p27 expression in the colon cancer cells, resulting in G2/M cell cycle arrest. MakA also caused downregulation of Ki67 and cyclin D1, limiting cancer cell proliferation. MakA is the first reported bacterial protein targeting the PIP5K1α lipid signalling pathway, thereby displaying anti-cancer capabilities. 

We discovered that phosphatidic acid (PA)-mediated MakA binding to host cell plasma membranes generated endomembrane-rich aggregates that caused host target cell autophagy and cytotoxicity. PA binding and cell toxicity by MakA required its N-terminal domain. 

The MakA genetic determinant is located within a novel pathogenicity island that also encodes the MakB, MakC, MakD, and MakE proteins. In most V. cholerae and Vibrio anguillarum genomes, mak genes form an operon, makCDBAE. The immunoblot analyses showed that wild-type V. cholerae A1552 released the MakA, MakB, and MakE proteins via the flagellum, while a flagellum-deficient mutant released very little or none. Structurally, MakA, MakB, and MakE belong to a superfamily of bacterial alpha-pore-forming toxins. Identification and structural analysis of V. cholerae Mak proteins revealed that the MakA/B/E toxin is common to several pathogenic Vibrionaceae strains, and this previously unrecognised tripartite toxin may increase their fitness and pathogenicity in various environments and host organisms. 

Bacteria release spherical lipid nanostructures, extracellular membrane vesicles, that may play many biological roles. Previously, Escherichia coli was shown to release physiologically active cytolysin A (ClyA) via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). ClyA, the first recognised member of the bacterial alpha-pore-forming proteins, has become a model for how oligomerization and pore formation occur in membranes. The clyA gene is cryptic in commensal non-pathogenic E. coli bacteria displaying no cytolytic activity. We found that the sublytic concentration of ClyA released via OMVs by non-pathogenic E. coli profoundly affected host cells. The ClyA+ OMVs were rapidly internalised into colon cancer cells by macropinocytosis and clathrin-mediated, dynamin-dependent endocytosis. The OMV-associated ClyA caused reduced levels of cancer-activating proteins like EZH2, H3K27me3, CXCR4, STAT3, and MDM2 via the EZH2/H3K27me3/miR622/CXCR4 signalling axis. Evidently, sublytic levels of ClyA in OMVs from non-pathogenic E. coli can modulate epigenetics by targeting EZH2 protein stability and we hypothesised that E. coli in colorectal cancer microbiomes may preferentially lack this protein. Given our current understanding of ClyA interactions in cancer cell signalling, it will be intriguing to determine if and how the status of the clyA locus is involved in the aetiology of colorectal cancer. 

Patogena bakterier använder flera utsöndringssystem för att frigöra eller injicera virulensfaktorer som kan förändra värdcellsprocesser, generera en replikativ nisch och hjälpa bakteriell överlevnad i ogynnsamma miljöer. Denna avhandling presenterar mina undersökningar om hur bakteriella faktorer kan modulera värdcellers signaleringsmekanismer. 

Vi undersökte möjliga signalvägar involverade i mål av Vibrio cholerae- proteinet MakA som visade sig förmedla hämning av tumörcellsproliferation. Caenorhabditis elegans som betar på MakA-producerande bakterier avslöjade att MakA kan påverka lipidmedierad signalering i nematoderna genom att påverka nivån av PPK-1, en homolog av eukaryot PIP5K1α. Vi studerade möjliga effekter av MakA på eukaryot PIP5K1α i humana tjocktarmscancercellinjer och fann minskade nivåer av PIP5K1α och pAkt i lipid-signaleringsvägen. Immunoblotanalyser visade att MakA hämmade cyklinberoende kinas 1 och ökade p27-uttryck i tjocktarmscancercellerna, vilket resulterade i G2/M-cellcykelstopp. MakA orsakade också nedreglerad Ki67 och cyklin D1, vilket begränsar cancercellsproliferation. MakA är det första rapporterade bakteriella proteinet som riktar sig mot PIP5K1α-lipidsignaleringsvägen och därmed visar anti-cancerförmåga.Vi upptäckte att fosfatidinsyra (PA)-medierad MakA-bindning till värdcellplasmamembran genererade endomembranrika aggregat som orsakade värdmålcellsautofagi och cytotoxicitet. För PA-bindning och celltoxicitet av MakA behövs dess N-terminala domän. 

MakA genetiska determinanten är belägen inom en ny patogenicitetsö som också kodar för MakB-, MakC-, MakD- och MakE-proteinerna. I de flesta genomen hos V. cholerae och Vibrio anguillarum bildar mak generna ett operon, makCDBAE. Immunoblotanalyserna visade att vildtyp V. cholerae A1552 utsöndrar MakA-, MakB- och MakE- proteinerna via flagellen, medan en flagell-defekt mutant utsöndrade mycket lite eller inget. Strukturellt sett tillhör MakA, MakB och MakE en superfamilj av bakteriella alfa-porbildande toxiner. Identifiering och strukturell analys av V. cholerae Mak-proteiner avslöjade att MakA/B/E- toxinet är gemensamt för flera patogena Vibrionaceae-stammar, och detta, tidigare okända trekomponent toxin kan bidra till bakteriernas överlevnadsförmåga och patogenicitet i olika miljöer och värdorganismer. 

De flesta bakterier frisätter sfäriska lipidnanostrukturer, extracellulära membranvesiklar, som kan spela många biologiska roller. Tidigare visades Escherichia coli frisätta fysiologiskt aktivt cytolysin A (ClyA) via yttre membranvesiklar (OMV). ClyA, den första medlemmen i en familj av bakteriella alfa-porbildande proteiner, har blivit en modell för hur oligomerisering och porbildning sker i membran. clyA-genen är kryptisk i kommensala icke-patogena E. coli bakterier som inte uppvisar någon cytolytisk aktivitet. Vi fann att den sublytiska koncentrationen av ClyA frisatt via OMVs av icke-patogena E. coli påverkade värdceller på ett påtagligt sätt. ClyA+ OMVs internaliserades snabbt i tjocktarmscancerceller genom makropinocytos och clathrin-medierad, dynaminberoende endocytos. Detta OMV-associerade ClyA orsakade minskade nivåer av canceraktiverande proteiner som EZH2, H3K27me3, CXCR4, STAT3 och MDM2 via EZH2/H3K27me3/miR622/CXCR4- signalaxeln. Uppenbarligen kan sublytiska nivåer av ClyA i OMV från icke-patogena E. coli modulera epigenetik genom effekter som påverkar EZH2-proteinstabilitet och vi antog att E. coli i mikrobiom hos individer med kolorektalcancer företrädesvis kan sakna detta protein. Med tanke på vår nuvarande förståelse av ClyA-interaktioner i cancercellssignalering, kommer det att bli intressant att avgöra om och hur statusen för clyA-lokuset är involverat i etiologin för kolorektal cancer. 

Recently, we demonstrated that a novel bacterial cytotoxin, the protein MakA which is released by Vibrio cholerae, is a virulence factor, causing killing of Caenorhabditis elegans when the worms are grazing on the bacteria. Studies with mammalian cell cultures in vitro indicated that MakA could affect eukaryotic cell signalling pathways involved in lipid biosynthesis. MakA treatment of colon cancer cells in vitro caused inhibition of growth and loss of cell viability. These findings prompted us to investigate possible signalling pathways that could be targets of the MakA-mediated inhibition of tumour cell proliferation. Initial in vivo studies with MakA producing V. cholerae and C. elegans suggested that the MakA protein might target the PIP5K1α phospholipid-signalling pathway in the worms. Intriguingly, MakA was then found to inhibit the PIP5K1α lipid-signalling pathway in cancer cells, resulting in a decrease in PIP5K1α and pAkt expression. Further analyses revealed that MakA inhibited cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) and induced p27 expression, resulting in G2/M cell cycle arrest. Moreover, MakA induced downregulation of Ki67 and cyclin D1, which led to inhibition of cell proliferation. This is the first report about a bacterial protein that may target signalling involving the cancer cell lipid modulator PIP5K1α in colon cancer cells, implying an anti-cancer effect.

The α-pore-forming toxins (α-PFTs) from pathogenic bacteria damage host cell membranes by pore formation. We demonstrate a remarkable, hitherto unknown mechanism by an α-PFT protein from Vibrio cholerae. As part of the MakA/B/E tripartite toxin, MakA is involved in membrane pore formation similar to other α-PFTs. In contrast, MakA in isolation induces tube-like structures in acidic endosomal compartments of epithelial cells in vitro. The present study unravels the dynamics of tubular growth, which occurs in a pH-, lipid-, and concentration-dependent manner. Within acidified organelle lumens or when incubated with cells in acidic media, MakA forms oligomers and remodels membranes into high-curvature tubes leading to loss of membrane integrity. A 3.7 Å cryo-electron microscopy structure of MakA filaments reveals a unique protein-lipid superstructure. MakA forms a pinecone-like spiral with a central cavity and a thin annular lipid bilayer embedded between the MakA transmembrane helices in its active α-PFT conformation. Our study provides insights into a novel tubulation mechanism of an α-PFT protein and a new mode of action by a secreted bacterial toxin.

Vibrio cholerae, responsible for outbreaks of cholera disease, is a highly motile organism by virtue of a single flagellum. We describe how the flagellum facilitates the secretion of three V. cholerae proteins encoded by a hitherto-unrecognized genomic island. The proteins MakA/B/E can form a tripartite toxin that lyses erythrocytes and is cytotoxic to cultured human cells. A structural basis for the cytolytic activity of the Mak proteins was obtained by X-ray crystallography. Flagellum-facilitated secretion ensuring spatially coordinated delivery of Mak proteins revealed a role for the V. cholerae flagellum considered of particular significance for the bacterial environmental persistence. Our findings will pave the way for the development of diagnostics and therapeutic strategies against pathogenic Vibrionaceae.

Background: A prevailing action of the Type VI secretion system (T6SS) in several Gram-negative bacterial species is inter-bacterial competition. In the past several years, many effectors of T6SS were identified in different bacterial species and their involvement in inter-bacterial interactions were described. However, possible defence mechanisms against T6SS attack among prey bacteria were not well clarified yet. Methods: Escherichia coli was assessed for susceptibility to T6SS-mediated killing by Vibrio cholerae. TheT6SS-mediated bacterial killing assays were performed in absence or presence of different protease inhibitors and with different mutant E. coli strains. Expression levels of selected proteins were monitored using SDS-PAGE and immunoblot analyses. Results: The T6SS-mediated killing of E. coli by V. cholerae was partly blocked when the serine protease inhibitor Pefabloc was present. E. coli lacking the periplasmic protease inhibitor Ecotin showed enhanced susceptibility to killing by V. cholerae. Mutations affecting E. coli membrane stability also caused increased susceptibility to killing by V. cholerae. E. coli lacking the maltodextrin porin protein LamB showed reduced susceptibility to killing by V. cholerae whereas E. coli with induced high levels of LamB showed reduced survival in inter-bacterial competition. Conclusions: Our study identified two proteins in E. coli, the intrinsic protease inhibitor Ecotin and the outer membrane porin LamB, that influenced E. coli susceptibility to T6SS-mediated killing by V. cholerae. General significance: We envision that it is feasible to explore these findings to target and modulate their expression to obtain desired changes in inter-bacterial competition in vivo, e.g. in the gastrointestinal microbiome.

Vibrio cholerae is a noninvasive intestinal pathogen extensively studied as the causative agent of the human disease cholera. Our recent work identified MakA as a potent virulence factor of V. cholerae in both Caenorhabditis elegans and zebrafish, prompting us to investigate the potential contribution of MakA to pathogenesis also in mammalian hosts. In this study, we demonstrate that the MakA protein could induce autophagy and cytotoxicity of target cells. In addition, we observed that phosphatidic acid (PA)-mediated MakA-binding to the host cell plasma membranes promoted macropinocytosis resulting in the formation of an endomembrane-rich aggregate and vacuolation in intoxicated cells that lead to induction of autophagy and dysfunction of intracellular organelles. Moreover, we functionally characterized the molecular basis of the MakA interaction with PA and identified that the N-terminal domain of MakA is required for its binding to PA and thereby for cell toxicity. Furthermore, we observed that the ΔmakA mutant outcompeted the wild-type V. cholerae strain A1552 in the adult mouse infection model. Based on the findings revealing mechanistic insights into the dynamic process of MakA-induced autophagy and cytotoxicity we discuss the potential role played by the MakA protein during late stages of cholera infection as an anti-colonization factor.

Cytolysin A (ClyA) is a pore-forming protein expressed at sublytic levels by a strongly silenced gene in non-pathogenic Escherichia coli, including typical commensal isolates in the intestinal microbiome of healthy mammalian hosts. Upon overproduction, the ClyA-expressing bacteria display a cytolytic phenotype. However, it remains unclear whether sublytic amounts of native ClyA play a role in commensal E. coli-host interactions in vivo. Here, we show that sublytic amounts of ClyA are released via outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and can affect host cells in a profound and remarkable manner. OMVs isolated from ClyA+ E. coli were rapidly internalised into cultured colon cancer cells. The OMV-associated ClyA inhibited the expression of cancer-activating proteins such as H3K27me3, CXCR4, STAT3, and MDM2 via the EZH2/H3K27me3/miR622/CXCR4 signalling axis. Our results demonstrate that sublytic amounts of ClyA in OMVs from non-pathogenic E. coli can target the stability of the EZH2 protein to modulate epigenetics of colon cancer cells