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This thesis was conducted within the project Choking Under Pressure, a longitudinal study following Swedish Grade 4 students during four semesters. The main purpose of this thesis was to develop and validate a math anxiety rating scale for Swedish-speaking primary school students in a Nordic context, and to explore the underlying mechanisms in the math anxiety–math performance relationship. This thesis consists of four studies, where Studies I and II adopt a measurement perspective. Study III provides a review of the role of working memory in the math anxiety–math performance relationship. Study IV extends Study III by empirically examining working memory and self-concept as mediators.

Study I assessed the validity and reliability of the Swedish MARS-E. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency demonstrated longitudinal stability and strong item agreement. Dimensionality analysis supported a one-factor structure, with evidence of both gender and longitudinal invariance. Significant gender differences in math anxiety were found, increasing across time points.

Study II extended Study I by combining data from two Finnish projects–one Finnish and one Finland-Swedish–with the Swedish sample. All measurements were conducted in Spring 2023 on Grade 4 students using the same instruments. A one-factor model was found for both Swedish-speaking groups, whereas the Finnish version of the MARS-E supported a two-factor model.

Study III was a literature review employing meta-analysis to examine the relationship between working memory and math anxiety, and the mediating role of working memory in the math anxiety–performance link. Results from 57 studies showed a significant negative correlation, and data from 8 studies indicated a partial mediation effect.

Study IV empirically examined how working memory and math self-concept influence the math anxiety–math performance link. Using structural equation models across two longitudinal waves, as well as multiple mediation, the results showed that both working memory and self-concept in math are important mediators in this relationship.The main contributions of this thesis are the development and validation of the Swedish MARS-E, as well as a deeper understanding of the mediating roles of working memory and math self-concept in the math anxiety–math performance relationship. These findings have implications for both research and educational practice, refining theoretical models of math anxiety and its cognitive and motivational correlates, and providing a foundation for interventions targeting math anxiety.

The current study assessed reliability and validity evidence of the shortened Swedish Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale—Elementary (MARS-E), using data from three time points. After initial pilot tests, a total of 429 students participated in the study, completing the MARS-E twice during grade 4 and once during grade 5. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a one-factor structure at each timepoint. The scale displayed both longitudinal and gender measurement invariance across timepoints, ensuring both stability and fairness across gender and time. Factor correlations with criterion variables were examined, revealing a strong correlation between math anxiety (MA) and test anxiety (TA) (r = 0.707). However, the two constructs had distinct relationships to other criterion variables, such as math performance (rma = − 0.343, rta = − 0.110) and self-concept in math (rma = − 0.580, rta = − 0.273). Gender correlations provided evidence of girls being more strongly associated with higher math anxiety scores compared to boys. The current paper provides evidence of the Swedish MARS-E as a valid, easily interpreted, unidimensional instrument for measuring math anxiety in Swedish primary school students. Additionally, the study highlights the gender disparities concerning math anxiety as early as grades 4 and 5.

The experience of math anxiety can have detrimental effects on students’ math performance, and researchers have in recent years tried to design interventions aiming at reducing math anxiety. This meta-analysis aimed to examine the effectiveness of math anxiety interventions in reducing math anxiety and improving math performance. The meta-analysis comprised 50 studies and included 75 effect sizes. On average, the effect sizes were moderate (g =-0.467) for reducing math anxiety and improving math performance (g = 0.502). Interventions that focused on Cognitive support or regulating Emotions were effective both in reducing math anxiety and improving math performance. In addition, longer interventions and interventions targeting students older than 12 had the biggest decrease in math anxiety. Study quality was not related to intervention outcomes.

It is well established that math anxiety has a negative relationship with math performance (MP). A few theories have provided explanations for this relationship. One of them, the Attentional Control Theory (ACT), suggests that anxiety can negatively impact the attentional control system and increase one's attention to threat-related stimuli. Within the ACT framework, the math anxiety (MA)—working memory (WM) relationship is argued to be critical for math performance. The present meta-analyses provides insights into the mechanisms of the MA—MP relation and the mediating role of WM. Through database searches with pre-determined search strings, 1,346 unique articles were identified. After excluding non-relevant studies, data from 57 studies and 150 effect sizes were used for investigating the MA—MP correlation using a random-effects model. This resulted in a mean correlation of r = −0.168. The database search of WM as a mediator for the MA—MP relation revealed 15 effects sizes leading to a descriptive rather than a generalizable statistic, with a mean indirect effect size of −0.092. Overall, the results confirm the ACT theory, WM does play a significant role in the MA—MP relationship.

In this study, we analyzed the development and effects of gender on basic number skills from third to ninth grade in Finland. Because the international comparison studies have shown slightly different developmental trends in mathematical attainment for different language groups in Finland, we added the language of education as a variable in our analysis. Participants were 4,265 students from third to ninth grade in Finland, representing students in two national languages (Finnish, n = 2,833, and Swedish, n = 1,432). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the subtasks in the dyscalculia screener formed two separate factors, namely, number-processing skills and arithmetic fluency. We found a linear development trend across age cohorts in both the factors. Reliability and validity evidence of the measures supported the use of these tasks in the whole age group from 9 to15 years. In this sample, there was an increasing gender difference in favor of girls and Swedish-speaking students by grade levels in number-processing skills. At the same time, boys showed a better performance and a larger variance in tasks measuring arithmetic fluency. The results indicate that the gender ratio within the group with mathematical learning disabilities depends directly on tasks used to measure their basic number skills.

Introduction: The negative relationship between math anxiety and mathematics performance is well established. However, factors such as how math anxiety is operationalized, the specific mathematical domain, gender, and cultural context may influence this relationship. Still, these factors have not been considered together and the results in primary school students have been inconsistent. Thus, this study aimed to investigate how math anxiety is related to arithmetic fluency and number processing in fourthgrade students across three cultural contexts (Finnish- and Swedish-speaking students from Finland and Swedish-speaking students from Sweden). In addition, we investigated the dimensionality of math anxiety (i.e., cognitive and affective dimensions) and gender differences in the level of and relations between math anxiety and mathematics performance.

Methods: The sample included 1022 fourth-grade students (52.6% girls) from Finland and Sweden. The participants completed a survey measuring their math anxiety and a mathematics performance test (arithmetic fluency and number processing).

Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported a two-dimensional math anxiety construct for the Finnish-speaking sample and a unidimensional math anxiety construct for the Swedish-speaking samples. The negative math anxiety–performance relationship was demonstrated in each sample, showing a slightly stronger association for arithmetic fluency than number processing. On average girls experienced higher levels of math anxiety and boys had better arithmetic fluency. The negative relationship between math anxiety and mathematics performance, especially for number processing, was stronger for boys.

Conclusion: The results highlightthe relationships between math anxiety and mathematics performance in fourth-grade students in Finland and Sweden. More research considering cultural (e.g., language) and gender differences is needed.

Attentional Control Theory posits that anxiety can impair attentional processes critical for complex tasks. This longitudinal study applies the theory to a math anxiety – math performance context within primary school students, investigating the roles of working memory as well as self-concept as mediators. Specifically, this study assesses the impact of these cognitive and self-belief mediators on arithmetic fluency and number processing and examines gender differences in the mediation pathways. Findings suggest that both working memory and self-concept mediate the negative relationship between math anxiety and math performance. Specifically, higher math anxiety levels were linked to reduced working memory and lower self-concept, working memory later affected both math outcomes. The mediation effects were stable across gender, with both mediators significantly impacting girls, and to a large extent, boys. These findings highlight the importance of addressing both cognitive and self-belief factors in educational interventions aimed at reducing math anxiety and improving performance.