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Background: Health systems in many low- and middle-income countries suffer from critical shortages and inequitable geographical distribution of the health workforce. Since the 1940s, many low- and middle-income countries have passed through different regimes of health sector reforms; the most recent one was in the 1990s. Tanzania is a good example of these countries. From the 1990s, Tanzania has been implementing the third generation of health sector reforms. This thesis analysed the health workforce development following the 1990s health sector reforms in Tanzania.

Methods: An exploratory case study employing both quantitative and qualitative research approaches was used to analyse the training, deployment, and retention of medical doctors about two decades following the 1990s healthsector reforms. The quantitative approach involved analysis of graduation books and records from the Medical Council of Tanganyika to document the number of doctors who graduated locally and abroad, a countrywide survey of available doctors as of July 2011, and analysis of staffing levels to document the number of doctors recommended for the health sector as of 2012. The gap between the number of available and required doctors was computed by subtracting available from required in that period. The qualitative approach involved key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and a documents review. Key informants were recruited from districts, regions, government ministries, national hospitals, medical training institutions in both the public and private sectors, Christian Social Services Commission and the Association of Private Health Facilities in Tanzania. Focused group discussion participants were members of Council Health Management Teams in three selected districts. Documents reviewed included country human resources for health profiles, health sector strategic plans, human resources for health strategic plans and published and grey literature on health sector reforms, health workforce training, and deployment and retention documentation. For the training, analysis of data was done thematically with the guide of policy analysis framework. For deployment and retention, qualitative content analysis was adopted.

Results: Re-introduction of the private sector in the form of public-private partnerships has boosted the number of doctors graduating annually sevenfold in 2010 compared to that in 1992. Despite the increase in the number of doctors graduating annually, their training faces some challenges, including the erosion of university autonomies prescribed by the law; coercive admission of many medical students greater than the capacity of the medical schools, thus threatening the quality of the graduates; and lack of coordination between trainers and employers. Tanzania requires a minimum of 3,326 doctors to attain the minimum threshold of 0.1 doctor per 1,000 population, as recommended by the World Health Organization. However, a countrywide survey has revealed the existence of around 1,300 doctors working in the health sector—almost the same as the number before the reforms. Failure to offer employment to all graduating doctors, uncertainties around the first appointment, failure to respect doctors’ preferences for first appointment workplaces, and the feelings of insecurity in going to districts are among the major challenges haunting the deployment of doctors in Tanzania. For those who went to the districts, the issues of unfavourable working conditions, unsupportive environment in the community, and resource scarcity have all challenged their retention.

Conclusions: The development of human resources for health after the 1990s health sector reforms have to some extent been contradictory. On the one hand, Tanzania has succeeded in training more doctors than the minimum it requires, despite some challenges facing the training institutions. On the other hand, failure to deploy and retain an adequate number of doctors in its health system has left the country to continue suffering from a shortage and inequitable distribution of doctors in favour of urban areas. For health sector reforms to bring successes with minimal challenges in health workforce development, a holistic approach that targets doctors’ training, deployment, and retention is recommended.