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Insights about the near-Mars space environment from Mars Express observations have motivated a revisit of the Phobos 2/ASPERA ion data from 1989. We have expanded the analysis to now include all usable heavy ion(O⁺, O₂⁺ , CO_2⁺) measurements from the circular orbits of Phobos 2. Phobos 2/ASPERA ion fluxes in the Martian tailare compared with previous results obtained by the instruments on Phobos 2. Further validation of the measurement results is obtained by comparing IMP-8 and Phobos 2/ASPERA solar wind ion fluxes, taking into account the time lag between Earth and Mars. Heavy ion flux measurements from 18 circular equatorial orbits around Mars are bin-averaged to a grid, using the MSE (electric field) frame of reference. The binned data are subsequently integrated to determine the total escape rate of planetary ions. From this we derive a total planetary heavy ion escape rate of (2–3)10²⁵ s^-1 from Mars for the 1989 solar maximum. 

More than 7 years of ion flux measurements in the energy range 10 eV–15 keV have allowed the ASPERA-3/IMA (Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Ions/Ion Mass Analyzer) instrument on Mars Express to collect a large database of ion measurements in the Mars environment, over a wide range of upstream solar wind (density and velocity) and radiation (solar EUV intensity) conditions. We investigate the influence of these parameters on the Martian atmospheric ion escape rate by integrating IMA heavy ionflux measurements taken in the Martian tail at similar (binned) solar wind density (n_sw), velocity (v_sw), and solar EUV intensity (I_EUV) conditions. For the same solar wind velocity and EUV intensity ranges (v_sw and I_EUV constrained), we find a statistically significant decrease of up to a factor of 3 in the atmospheric ion escape rate with increased average solar wind density (5.6 × 10²⁴ s⁻¹ to 1.9 × 10²⁴ s⁻¹ for 0.4 cm⁻³ and 1.4 cm⁻³, respectively). For low solar wind density (0.1–0.5 cm⁻³) and low EUV intensity, the escape rate increaseswith increasing solar wind velocity from 2.4 × 10²⁴ s⁻¹ to 5.6 × 10²⁴ s⁻¹. During high solar EUV intensities the escape fluxes are highly variable, leading to large uncertainties in the estimated escape rates; however, a statistically significant increase in the escape rate is found between low/high EUV for similar solar wind conditions. Empirical-analytical models for atmospheric escape are developed by fitting calculated escape rates to all sufficiently sampled upstream conditions.

Eight years (2007–2015) of ion flux measurements from Mars Express are used to statisticallyinvestigate the influence of the Martian magnetic crustal fields on the atmospheric ion escape rate.We combine all Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms/Ion Mass Analyzer (ASPERA-3/IMA)measurements taken during nominal upstream solar wind and solar extreme ultraviolet conditions tocompute global average ion distribution functions, individually for the north/south hemispheres and forvarying solar zenith angles (SZAs) of the strongest crustal magnetic field. Escape rates are subsequentlycalculated from each of the average distribution functions. The maximum escape rate (4.2 ± 1.2) × 10²⁴ s⁻¹ is found for SZA = 60^∘–80^∘, while the minimum escape rate (1.7±0.6)×10²⁴ s⁻¹ is found for SZA = 28^∘–60^∘,showing that the dayside orientation of the crustal fields significantly affects the global escape rate (p=97%). However, averaged over time, independent of SZA, we find no statistically significant difference inthe escape rates from the two hemispheres (escape from southern hemisphere 46% ± 18% of global rate).

The long operational life (2003-present) of Mars Express (MEX) has allowed the spacecraft tomake plasma measurements in the Martian environment over a wide range of upstream conditions. Wehave analyzed ∼7000 MEX orbits, covering three orders of magnitude in solar wind dynamic pressure, withdata from the on board Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Particles (ASPERA-3) package, mappingthe locations where MEX crosses the main plasma boundaries, induced magnetosphere boundary (IMB), ionosphere boundary (IB), and bow shock (BS). A coincidence scheme was employed, where data fromthe Ion Mass Analyzer (IMA) and the Electron Spectrometer (ELS) had to agree for a positive boundaryidentification, which resulted in crossings from 1083 orbit segments that were used to create dynamictwo-parameter (solar wind density, n_sw, and velocity v_sw) dependent global dynamic models for the IMB, IB,and BS. The modeled response is found to be individual to each boundary. The IMB scales mainly dependenton solar wind dynamic pressure and EUV intensity. The BS location closely follows the location of the IMB atthe subsolar point, though under extremely low nsw and vsw the BS assumes a more oblique shape. The IBclosely follows the IMB on the dayside and changes its nightside morphology with different trends for nswand vsw. We also investigate the influence of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation on the IMB and BS, findingthat increased EUV intensity expands both boundaries.

Loss of the early Martian atmosphere is often thought to have occurred due to an effective transfer of the solar wind energy through the Martian induced magnetic barrier to the ionosphere. We have quantified the coupling efficiency by comparing the power of the heavy ion outflow with the available power supplied by the upstream solar wind. Constraining upstream solar wind density n_sw, velocity v_sw, and EUV intensity I_EUV/photoionizing flux F_XUV in varying intervals reveals a decrease in coupling efficiency, k,with solar wind dynamic pressure as k ∝ p_dyn^{−0.74±0.13} and with F_XUV as k ∝ F_XUV^{−2.28±0.30}. Despite the decreasein coupling efficiency, higher F_XUV enhances the cold ion outflow, increasing the total ion escape rate as Q(F_XUV) = 10¹⁰(0.82 ± 0.05)F_XUV. The discrepancy between coupling and escape suggests that ion escapefrom Mars is primarily production limited in the modern era, though decreased coupling may lead to an energy-limited solar wind interaction under early Sun conditions.

An extremely strong Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) impacted Mars on 12 July 2011, while theMars Express spacecraft was present inside the nightside ionosphere. Estimated solar wind density andspeed during the event are 39 particles cm⁻³ and 730 km/s, corresponding to nominal solar wind fluxat Mars when the solar system was ∼1.1 Ga old. Comparing with expected average atmospheric heavy ionfluxes under similar XUV conditions, the CME impact is found to have no significant effect on the escaperate 3.3 × 10²⁴ s⁻¹, with an upper limit at 10²⁵ s⁻¹ if the observed tail contraction is not taken into account.On the subsequent orbit, 7 h later after magnetosphere response, fluxes were only 2.4% of average. As such,even under primordial solar wind conditions we are unable to find support for a strong solar wind-driven ion escape, rather the main effect appears to be acceleration of the escaping ions by ×10–×20 typicalcharacteristic energy.

Solar wind driven atmospheric ion escape has long been hypothesized as a major influence on the evolution of the Martian atmosphere due to the lack of a Martian global dipole magnetic field. We use 10 years (2007-2017) of Mars Express data to quantify the ion escape rate over the full sampled upstream solar wind dynamic pressure, p_dyn, and solar photoionizing flux, F_XUV, parameter space. The modeled dependence on the upstream parameters indicates a near-linear dependence on F_XUV and weak negative correlation with p_dyn. Integrating total heavy ion escape back through time, considering the evolution of the upstream parameters and the modeled trends, can only account for an estimated 4.8 ± 1.1 mbar of atmosphere lost as ions since the mid-late Hesperian (3.3 Ga ago). Accounting for the recently reported stability of ion escape through the energetic oxygen ion plume provides an upper estimate of 6 mbar lost. Extending the extrapolation to the late Noachian (3.9 Ga ago) accounts for 6.3 ± 1.9 mbar, and analogously up to 9 mbar, lost through ion escape since. Thus the ion escape trends observed by Mars Express indicate that atmospheric ion escape contributed only a minor role in the evolution of the Martian atmosphere. We also report solar wind control of the cold ion outflow channel, providing a tentative explanation for the low response of the ion escape rate to upstream solar wind.