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Context: Vocational education and training (VET) has traditionally focused on providing learners with technical skills for the labour market. However, growing societal challenges – such as digital transformation and social polarisation – require a broader approach that includes transversal skills, including citizenship competences. Research shows that fostering these competences not only enhances employability but also supports active and responsible participation in civic life.

Approach: By drawing on examples from a number of European countries such as England, Norway, Poland, Scotland, and Sweden in this article, we aim to discuss the three key topics that we find particularly important from the perspective of the development of democratic citizenship in VET, namely: a) assessment, b) inclusion, and c) VET learners’ participation.

Findings: Designing the assessment of citizenship competences is shaped by the organisational structure of the vocational assessment system in any given country. Poland and Scotland represent two contrasting approaches. In Poland, VET assessment is highly centralised, with external agencies responsible for standardised examinations conducted at the end of the learning process. Scotland adopts a more decentralised model, with assessment integrated into ongoing learning and teachers or training providers playing a central role in designing and implementing assessments. Inclusion in VET goes beyond widening access; it requires ensuring that every learner – regardless of gender, migration background or socio-economic status – can see themselves as an active democratic agent. Sweden’s rotational workplace placements illustrate how carefully designed learning environments can turn inclusive rhetoric into practice, fostering empathy, solidarity and political inclusion. Learners’ participation may lead to empowerment and the development of active citizenship. This requires an approach that goes beyond individual practices in the VET school or in the workplace. Systemic and joint approach by all stakeholder groups is needed and participatory practices should be built in as a natural and integrated element across all VET programmes.

Conclusions: By focusing on assessment, inclusion and participation, we have shown that promoting the development of democratic citizenship competences is a multi-layered and multi-faceted process. It requires rethinking both the role of these competences in VET and the introduction of new solutions, methods and techniques. Inclusion plays a key role, and by creating inclusive learning environments that recognise the needs of diverse groups, VET as a system can promote civic engagement and democratic competences among VET learners. Alternative approaches may be necessary to strengthen the links between formal education and non-formal initiatives, as well as to ensure adequate resources. Comprehensive experience of VET learners’ participation should be a collaborative endeavour for all VET stakeholders - trainers, employers and VET learners. However, this area remains significantly under-researched, with few comprehensive studies specifically addressing VET. In this context, the Council of Europe’s work stands out, particularly through its launch of the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) in VET project.