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Learning through mixed reality: emergency medical responders' perspectives on training for mass casualty incidents
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Nursing.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5125-7939
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Lärande i mixed reality : prehospital insatspersonals perspektiv på träning för masskadehändelser (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Background: Mass casualty incidents (MCIs), though infrequent compared with routine emergencies, are increasing globally. They pose exceptional challenges for emergency medical responders (EMRs), who must make rapid decisions under conditions of uncertainty and resource scarcity. To meet these demands, EMRs require proficiency in both technical procedures and non-technical capacities. Conventional training formats are valuable but cannot fully accommodate this breadth of skills. Mixed-reality (MR) training has been proposed as a complementary approach. However, evidence as to whether MR constitutes an effective pedagogical method for developing the skills required for MCI preparedness remains limited and fragmented.

Aim: The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate EMRs’ perspectives on how MR-based training is perceived to enhance or hinder the learning of skills essential for effective MCI response.

Methods: Study I used semi-structured interviews with EMRs (n = 27) from four EU countries, analysed using qualitative content analysis. Study II developed and validated CASPER, an instrument designed to assess perceived learning outcomes in MCI response, drawing on data from bachelor’s students of disaster medicine (n = 75). Study III applied CASPER in a cross-sectional survey of EMRs (n = 266) from six countries following MR-based MCI training, analysed using exploratory and non-parametric methods. Study IV explored learning affordances and constraints of MR-based MCI training through multi-source group discussions with EMRs (n = 25), analysed using qualitative content analysis.

Results: Study I identified limited realism and a lack of structured debriefing as constraints on learning in conventional training. In continuation, Study II demonstrated strong reliability and factorial validity for CASPER. Building on these findings, Study III showed that EMRs reported the highest perceived learning outcomes for scene assessment and situational awareness, and the lowest for stress management and risk assessment, with novices rating these higher than experienced responders. Finally, Study IV indicated that while MR-based MCI training promoted learning through greater immersion, it also hindered it due to technical issues and limited real-world relevance.

Conclusion: This thesis demonstrates that MR-based MCI training supports the learning of non-technical skills through enhanced immersion and situational awareness. At the same time, its pedagogical value is currently limited by technical and design-related constraints that affect the learning of technical procedures. Effective training depends not only on the degree of realism but on the alignment of MR design with clinical practice. The development and validation of CASPER provide a reliable instrument for assessing perceived learning outcomes across both technical and non-technical domains, thereby strengthening the evaluation of simulation-based education for mass casualty response.

Abstract [sv]

Bakgrund: Masskadehändelser är sällanhändelser jämfört med ordinarie akutsituationer. Samtidigt pekar forskning på en global ökning i förekomst. För prehospital insatspersonal innebär masskadehändelser särskilda utmaningar som de annars inte utsätts för i övrig klinisk praxis. De behöver fatta snabba beslut och prioritera vård av skadade i en situation som präglas av osäkerhet och begränsade resurser. För effektiv respons i masskadehändelser krävs både tekniska färdigheter och icke-tekniska förmågor såsom situationsmedvetenhet och samordning. Begränsningar i konventionella träningsmetoder gör att prehospital insatspersonal inte kan lära sig den bredd av färdigheter som förväntas av dem i samband med masskadehändelser. Teknikbaserad simulering med mixed reality (MR) har föreslagits som ett tänkbart komplement. Dock saknas kunskap gällande det pedagogiska värdet av MR-baserad träning i masskadehändelser.

Syfte: Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling var att undersöka prehospital insatspersonals perspektiv på hur MR-baserad träning främjar eller hindrar lärandet av nödvändiga färdigheter för effektiv respons i masskadehändelser.

Metoder: I Studie I genomfördes semistrukturerade intervjuer med prehospital insatspersonal från fyra europeiska länder (n = 27). Kvalitativ innehållsanalys användes för att analysera data. Studie II utvecklade och validerade mätinstrumentet CASPER för att mäta upplevt lärande, baserat på data från studenter som gick en universitetsutbildning som innefattade utbildning i katastrofmedicin (n = 75). I Studie III användes CASPER i en tvärsnittsstudie med prehospital insatspersonal sex europeiska länder (n = 266) för att undersöka MR-träning för masskadehändelser. Data analyserades med explorativa och icke-parametriska metoder. Studie IV utforskade främjande respektive hindrande faktorer för lärande efter MR-baserad träning för masskadehändelser genom fokusgruppsintervjuer med prehospital insatspersonal i Sverige (n = 25). Data analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys.

Resultat: Resultatet i Studie I identifierade otillräcklig realism och avsaknad av strukturerad återkoppling som faktorer i konventionell träning som begränsade lärandeprocessen. I Studie II visade analyser av CASPER stark reliabilitet och faktorvaliditet, vilket talar för att instrumentet är tillämpligt för att mäta lärandeutfall i träning av respons vid masskadehändelser. Studie III visade att prehospital insatspersonal skattade sitt lärande som högst inom färdigheter relaterade till situationsmedvetenhet och skadeplatsbedömning, och lägst inom riskbedömning och stresshantering. I Studie IV indikerade resultaten att ökad realism i MR-baserad träning för masskadehändelser främjade lärande genom ökad inlevelse i den simulerade miljön. Samtidigt framkom flera begränsande faktorer, såsom tekniska problem och en diskrepans mellan simulering och verklig kontext, vilka påverkade lärandeprocessen negativt.

Slutsats: Resultatet av denna avhandling visar att MR-baserad träning för masskadehändelser stödjer lärande av icke-tekniska färdigheter genom ökad inlevelse och situationsmedvetenhet. Samtidigt är det pedagogiska värdet i nuläget begränsat av tekniska och designmässiga hinder som påverkar lärande av tekniska färdigheter. Effektiv träning är inte enkom avhängig graden av realism, utan förutsätter att utformningen av MR-baserad träning för masskadehändelser är anpassad till klinisk praxis. Utvecklingen och valideringen av CASPER visar på ett tillförlitligt instrument för att mäta upplevda läranderesultat inom både tekniska och icke-tekniska färdigheter, vilket stärker möjligheten att utvärdera simuleringsbaserad utbildning i masskadehändelser.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2025. , p. 94
Series
Umeå University medical dissertations, ISSN 0346-6612 ; 2385
Keywords [en]
Mass casualty incident, emergency medical responder, disaster medicine, mixed reality, simulation-based learning, education, learning-outcome
Keywords [sv]
Masskadehändelse, prehospital insatspersonal, katastrofmedicin, mixed reality, simuleringsbaserad träning, utbildning, lärandeutfall
National Category
Nursing
Research subject
Caring Sciences
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-245562ISBN: 978-91-8070-812-8 (electronic)ISBN: 978-91-8070-811-1 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-245562DiVA, id: diva2:2006783
Public defence
2025-11-14, Aula Biologica, Biologihuset, Linnaeus väg 7, Umeå, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-10-24 Created: 2025-10-16 Last updated: 2025-10-20Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Exploring medical first responders' perceptions of mass casualty incident scenario training: a qualitative study on learning conditions and recommendations for improvement
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Exploring medical first responders' perceptions of mass casualty incident scenario training: a qualitative study on learning conditions and recommendations for improvement
Show others...
2024 (English)In: BMJ Open, E-ISSN 2044-6055, Vol. 14, no 7, article id e084925Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objective: Despite participating in scenario training, many medical first responders (MFRs) perceive themselves as inadequately prepared to respond to mass casualty incidents (MCIs). The objective of this study was to conduct a comprehensive examination of traditional MCI scenario training methods, focusing on their inherent strengths and limitations. An investigation into the perceptions of MFRs who had participated in MCI scenario training was carried out to identify potential areas for improvement and provide recommendations for refining MCI training protocols.

Design: Qualitative inductive approach using semistructured interviews that took place between October 2021 and February 2022. Data were analysed with qualitative content analysis.

Setting: MCI scenario training involving four organisations (three emergency medical services and one search-and-rescue organisation) tasked with responding to MCIs, collectively representing four European Union countries.

Participants: 27 MFRs (17 emergency medical services personnel and 10 search-and-rescue volunteers) were recruited to participate in the study.

Results: Two categories and seven associated subcategories (shown in parentheses) were identified as influencing the learning outcomes for MFRs: Training in a context mirroring real-world incidents (conducting incident scene risk assessment, realistic representation in casualties, incorporating scenario variety into the curriculum, interagency collaboration, role alignment when training incident site management) and use of a pedagogical framework (allowing for mistakes, the importance of post-training evaluation).

Conclusions: This study reaffirms the value of traditional MCI scenario training and identifies areas for enhancement, advocating for realistic scenarios, interagency collaboration, improved incident site management skills and thorough post-training evaluation. It suggests a shift in MCI training conceptualisation and delivery. The potential of virtual reality technologies as a valuable addition to training methods is explored, with a note on the need for further research to ascertain the long-term effectiveness of these technologies. However, the selection of a training method should consider programme goals, target population and resources.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 2024
Keywords
medical education & training, nursing care, qualitative research, trauma nursing, virtual reality
National Category
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy Educational Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-227965 (URN)10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084925 (DOI)001313107100001 ()38991686 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85198605799 (Scopus ID)
Projects
Medical First Responder Training using a Mixed Reality Approach featuring haptic feedback for enhanced realism
Funder
EU, Horizon 2020, 101021775
Available from: 2024-07-24 Created: 2024-07-24 Last updated: 2025-10-16Bibliographically approved
2. Self-assessment of learning outcomes in prehospital disaster response skills: instrument development and validation for mass casualty incident training
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Self-assessment of learning outcomes in prehospital disaster response skills: instrument development and validation for mass casualty incident training
2025 (English)In: BMJ Open, E-ISSN 2044-6055, Vol. 15, no 3, article id e098284Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objective: Measuring the effectiveness of mass casualty incident (MCI) scenario training is challenging due to simultaneously assessing individual skills, team dynamics, decision-making under pressure and adaptability. Existing instruments often focus too narrowly on individual skills, overlooking the comprehensive range of skills needed for effective prehospital disaster response. This study aims to develop and validate a comprehensive self-Assessment tool for prehospital disaster response skills during initial MCI scenario training.

Design: The instrument was developed and validated using a comprehensive methodology. This included literature reviews to identify the construct, ensuring content validity through expert evaluation and conducting field trials in MCI scenario training to evaluate the instrument under simulated conditions that approximated real-life incidents. The instrument's psychometric properties were assessed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Horn's parallel analysis, as well as Cronbach's α and item-Total correlation analysis.

Setting: Two field trials conducted with participants in Sweden during 2023 and 2024. Participants 75 students from a bachelor's programme at a Swedish university were recruited to participate in the field trials. The programme featured one semester of comprehensive theoretical and practical training in disaster medicine, including MCI response and management. 88 instruments were collected during the field trials.

Results: Overall Cronbach's α score was 0.86, indicating high internal consistency for the instrument. EFA and Horn's parallel analysis revealed a five-factor model accounting for 52.3% of the total variance: incident control and management; systematic examination procedures; risk assessment and management; stress response and impact; and triage procedures. Cronbach's α for all factors indicated good internal consistency (range: 0.74-0.85).

Conclusions: The instrument addresses a critical gap by offering a comprehensive self-evaluation tool for disaster response skills. The robust psychometric properties indicate its potential for practical implication. Future studies should explore its application in diverse training settings and populations to enhance its utility and generalisability. A comprehensive development and validation methodology ensured the high content validity of the instrument.

Keywords
accident & emergency medicine, Decision Making, medical education & training, Triage
National Category
Anesthesiology and Intensive Care
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-237382 (URN)10.1136/bmjopen-2024-098284 (DOI)001456340500001 ()40147992 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105001331993 (Scopus ID)
Funder
EU, Horizon 2020, 101021775
Available from: 2025-04-22 Created: 2025-04-22 Last updated: 2025-10-16Bibliographically approved
3. Mixed reality training for mass-casualty incidents: self-assessed learning outcomes among emergency medical responders
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Mixed reality training for mass-casualty incidents: self-assessed learning outcomes among emergency medical responders
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Clinical Medicine
Research subject
Caring Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-245534 (URN)
Available from: 2025-10-14 Created: 2025-10-14 Last updated: 2025-10-16Bibliographically approved
4. Exploring learning affordances and constraints in mixed reality mass casualty incident training: a qualitative interview study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Exploring learning affordances and constraints in mixed reality mass casualty incident training: a qualitative interview study
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Clinical Medicine Nursing
Research subject
Caring Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-245544 (URN)
Available from: 2025-10-15 Created: 2025-10-15 Last updated: 2025-10-16Bibliographically approved

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