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Ear and hearing diagnostics in low-income settings: prospects for new eHealth supported solutions
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9425-8632
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Öron- och hörseldiagnostik i låginkomstmiljöer : möjligheter för nya ehälso-lösningar (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Millions of people suffer from hearing loss globally. Otitis media and age-related hearing loss are the most common causes of hearing loss. Besides hearing loss, otitis media can lead to severe infections in the balance and hearing organs as well as the brain with serious complications. Long term consequences of both otitis media and hearing loss are preventable, but for prevention, available and reliable diagnostics is essential. South Africa is one of many countries where ear disease and hearing loss are prevalent and the studies in this thesis are conducted in low-income communities in the City of Tshwane in South Africa. The aim was to validate two new diagnostic tools based on eHealth for ear disease and hearing loss and to explore the prerequisites to implement the methods at clinics in the low-income communities. 

The thesis includes two studies of smartphone-based audiometry and one study of image-based otitis media diagnostics using artificial intelligence. To explore the prerequisites for implementing these methods, the thesis also includes one study in which primary healthcare professionals working in low-income settings were interviewed about their perspectives of ear and hearing health today and for the future. 

In study I and II, the accuracy and reliability of smartphone audiometry was investigated. The thresholds from the smartphone hearing tests were compared to the thresholds from conventional audiometry. When the test was conducted in an operator-controlled manner (study I), the mean difference between methods was in a soundproof booth 1.6 decibel (SD 9.9) and in a noisy primary healthcare environment -1.0 decibel (SD 7.1) (smartphone thresholds subtracted from conventional). When the hearing test was updated to a self-test (study II) and studied in a noisy environment, the mean difference compared to conventional audiometry was -2.2 decibel (SD 10.1) (smartphone thresholds subtracted from conventional). There were no significant differences between repeated measurements with the smartphone test, and smartphone audiometry was therefore considered reliable.

The third study compared the diagnosis from a convolutional neural network (one kind of artificial intelligence) to the reference diagnosis from an expert panel using otoscopic images of tympanic membranes. Accuracy was calculated and how modifications of data affected it (addition of more images, augmentation and normalisation). The accuracy was ≥88 % for all instances tested when the network was used to discern between normal ears, obstructing wax and pathological ears. The modifications of data had no apparent effect on the accuracy. 

The interview study (study IV) is ongoing, and the results are therefore preliminary. Professionals from public primary healthcare clinics were interviewed about the prerequisite for ear and hearing healthcare today, their knowledge of and attitude towards artificial intelligence and the prerequisite to implement tools like the ones proposed in study I-III at their clinics. Some important components seem to be present, although there are several aspects necessary to consider before the tools can be incorporated in the everyday work. An openness to the technique and willingness to learn and being involved was considered beneficial together with critical thinking towards possible pitfalls. It was however seen that maintenance of facilities and equipment and basic medical treatment were at instances missing, which must be prioritised first.

Overall, the studies in this thesis showed that tools supported by eHealth for ear and hearing care can contribute to accurate and accessible ear and hearing diagnostics in low-income settings. They can thereby offer possibilities to prevent long-term consequences from ear disease and hearing loss, but the unique conditions at the clinics must be considered. Future studies of AI supported tools should be performed in clinical settings. 

Abstract [sv]

Hörselnedsättning drabbar miljontals människor globalt och kan orsakas av inflammation eller infektion i mellanörat (mediaotit). Förutom hörselnedsättning kan mediaotit leda till allvarliga infektioner i balans- och hörselorganen och i hjärnan. Långvariga konsekvenser av både mediaotit och hörselnedsättning går att förebygga, men då behövs tillgänglig och tillförlitlig diagnostik. Sydafrika är ett av många länder där förekomsten av öronsjukdom och hörselnedsättning är hög. Studierna i denna avhandling är genomförda i låginkomstområden i Sydafrika, i City of Tshwane. Syftet med studierna är att validera två nya metoder för att med eHälsa diagnostisera öronsjukdom och hörselnedsättning och också att undersöka förutsättningarna för att implementera metoderna i låginkomstområden. Avhandlingen omfattar dels två studier om smartphone-baserad hörselmätning och en studie om bildbaserad diagnostik av mediaotit med hjälp av artificiell intelligens. Avhandlingen omfattar också en studie där personal från primärvårdskliniker i låginkomstområden intervjuas om förutsättningarna för att implementera de nya diagnostiska metoderna i sitt kliniska arbete. 

I de två första studierna undersöktes träffsäkerheten för ett smartphonebaserat hörseltest. Hörselresultaten från smartphone-testet jämfördes mot konventionell hörselmätning. Studierna visar att smartphoneundersökningen gav kliniskt acceptabla resultat både då en undersökare testade försökspersonerna manuellt och även då undersökningen utfördes som ett självtest. Hörseltestet är studerat med likvärdiga resultat både i ett ljudisolerat rum och i en miljö med mycket omgivningsljud. 

I den tredje studien jämfördes örondiagnosen ställd av en typ av artificiell intelligens som används vid bildigenkänning, ett s.k. faltningsnätverk, mot en referensdiagnos ställd av en expertpanel bestående av en grupp erfarna öronläkare. Som grund för diagnos användes bilder av trumhinnor. I studien analyserades också hur modifiering av data (tillägg av fler bilder och s.k. normalisering och augmentering) påverkade resultaten. Träffsäkerheten för nätverket var hög, ≥88 % under alla testade omständigheter då nätverket skulle skilja på normala trumhinnor, sjuka trumhinnor och skymmande vax. De modifieringar av data som användes gav varken en tydlig förbättring eller försämring av träffsäkerheten. 

Intervjustudien, som utgör den sista delen i avhandlingen är pågående och resultaten därför preliminära. Personal från offentligt drivna primärvårdskliniker i Sydafrika har intervjuats om förutsättningarna att bedriva öron- och hörseldiagnostik idag, om sin kunskap och attityd till artificiell intelligens och om förutsättningarna att använda redskap baserade på artificiell intelligens på klinikerna. Det framkommer att det finns möjligheter för de nya metoderna att göra nytta, men att det också finns många aspekter att beakta innan de kan tas i bruk i den kliniska verksamheten. 

Sammantaget visar studierna i denna avhandling att det finns förutsättningar att med nya diagnostiska metoder baserade på eHälsa diagnostisera öronsjukdom och hörselnedsättning i låginkomstområden. Om metoderna kan implementeras kan de bidra till ökad tillgång till träffsäker diagnostik och en minskning av de långvariga konsekvenserna av dessa tillstånd.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2025. , p. 77
Series
Umeå University medical dissertations, ISSN 0346-6612 ; 2393
Keywords [en]
Diagnostics, otitis media, audiometry, smartphone audiometry, hearing, hearing loss, tympanic membrane, global health, artificial intelligence, machine learning, convolutional neural network, deep learning, attitudes, AI-literacy, eHealth, mHealth
National Category
General Medicine Oto-rhino-laryngology
Research subject
Medicine
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-246838ISBN: 978-91-8070-844-9 (electronic)ISBN: 978-91-8070-843-2 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-246838DiVA, id: diva2:2016247
Public defence
2025-12-19, Bergasalen, Norrlands Universitetsjukhus, Umeå, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-11-28 Created: 2025-11-25 Last updated: 2025-11-27Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Smartphone threshold audiometry in underserved primary health-care contexts
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Smartphone threshold audiometry in underserved primary health-care contexts
2016 (English)In: International Journal of Audiology, ISSN 1499-2027, E-ISSN 1708-8186, Vol. 55, no 4, p. 232-238Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

OBJECTIVE: To validate a calibrated smartphone-based hearing test in a sound booth environment and in primary health-care clinics.

DESIGN: A repeated-measure within-subject study design was employed whereby air-conduction hearing thresholds determined by smartphone-based audiometry was compared to conventional audiometry in a sound booth and a primary health-care clinic environment.

STUDY SAMPLE: A total of 94 subjects (mean age 41 years ± 17.6 SD and range 18-88; 64% female) were assessed of whom 64 were tested in the sound booth and 30 within primary health-care clinics without a booth.

RESULTS: In the sound booth 63.4% of conventional and smartphone thresholds indicated normal hearing (≤15 dBHL). Conventional thresholds exceeding 15 dB HL corresponded to smartphone thresholds within ≤10 dB in 80.6% of cases with an average threshold difference of -1.6 dB ± 9.9 SD. In primary health-care clinics 13.7% of conventional and smartphone thresholds indicated normal hearing (≤15 dBHL). Conventional thresholds exceeding 15 dBHL corresponded to smartphone thresholds within ≤10 dB in 92.9% of cases with an average threshold difference of -1.0 dB ± 7.1 SD.

CONCLUSIONS: Accurate air-conduction audiometry can be conducted in a sound booth and without a sound booth in an underserved community health-care clinic using a smartphone.

Keywords
mHealth, automated audiometer, Audiometry, smartphone, air conduction, ambient noise
National Category
Otorhinolaryngology Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-114789 (URN)10.3109/14992027.2015.1124294 (DOI)000371744400005 ()26795898 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-84959105041 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2016-01-28 Created: 2016-01-28 Last updated: 2025-11-25Bibliographically approved
2. Accuracy and Reliability of Smartphone Self-Test Audiometry in Community Clinics in Low Income Settings: A Comparative Study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Accuracy and Reliability of Smartphone Self-Test Audiometry in Community Clinics in Low Income Settings: A Comparative Study
Show others...
2020 (English)In: Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, ISSN 0003-4894, E-ISSN 1943-572X, Vol. 129, no 6, p. 578-584Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: There is a lack of hearing health care globally, and tele-audiology and mobile technologies have been proposed as important strategies to reduce the shortfall. Objectives: To investigate the accuracy and reliability of smartphone self-test audiometry in adults, in community clinics in low-income settings.

Methods: A prospective, intra-individual, repeated measurements design was used. Sixty-three adult participants (mean age 52 years, range 20-88 years) were recruited from ENT and primary health care clinics in a low-income community in Tshwane, South Africa. Air conduction hearing thresholds for octave frequencies 0.5 to 8 kHz collected with the smartphone self-test in non-sound treated environments were compared to those obtained by reference audiometry.

Results: The overall mean difference between threshold seeking methods (ie, smartphone thresholds subtracted from reference) was -2.2 dB HL (n = 467 thresholds, P = 0.00). Agreement was within 10 dB HL for 80.1% (n = 467 thresholds) of all threshold comparisons. Sensitivity for detection hearing loss >40 dB HL in one ear was 90.6% (n = 84 ears), and specificity 94.2% (n = 84 ears).

Conclusion: Smartphone self-test audiometry can provide accurate and reliable air conduction hearing thresholds for adults in community clinics in low-income settings.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sage Publications, 2020
Keywords
audiometry, global health, hearing loss, mHealth, smartphone, telemedicine
National Category
Otorhinolaryngology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-168171 (URN)10.1177/0003489420902162 (DOI)000509287300001 ()31965808 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85078096929 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2020-03-17 Created: 2020-03-17 Last updated: 2025-11-25Bibliographically approved
3. A Machine Learning Approach to Screen for Otitis Media Using Digital Otoscope Images Labelled by an Expert Panel
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A Machine Learning Approach to Screen for Otitis Media Using Digital Otoscope Images Labelled by an Expert Panel
Show others...
2022 (English)In: Diagnostics, ISSN 2075-4418, Vol. 12, no 6, article id 1318Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Otitis media includes several common inflammatory conditions of the middle ear that can have severe complications if left untreated. Correctly identifying otitis media can be difficult and a screening system supported by machine learning would be valuable for this prevalent disease. This study investigated the performance of a convolutional neural network in screening for otitis media using digital otoscopic images labelled by an expert panel.

Methods: Five experienced otologists diagnosed 347 tympanic membrane images captured with a digital otoscope. Images with a majority expert diagnosis (n = 273) were categorized into three screening groups Normal, Pathological and Wax, and the same images were used for training and testing of the convolutional neural network. Expert panel diagnoses were compared to the convolutional neural network classification. Different approaches to the convolutional neural network were tested to identify the best performing model.

Results: Overall accuracy of the convolutional neural network was above 0.9 in all except one approach. Sensitivity to finding ears with wax or pathology was above 93% in all cases and specificity was 100%. Adding more images to train the convolutional neural network had no positive impact on the results. Modifications such as normalization of datasets and image augmentation enhanced the performance in some instances.

Conclusions: A machine learning approach could be used on digital otoscopic images to accurately screen for otitis media.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI, 2022
Keywords
artificial intelligence, convolutional neural network, digital imaging, global health, machine learning, otitis media
National Category
Medical Imaging
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-203172 (URN)10.3390/diagnostics12061318 (DOI)000817435700001 ()35741128 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85131529117 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2023-01-16 Created: 2023-01-16 Last updated: 2025-11-25Bibliographically approved
4. Attitudes towards artificial intelligence among healthcare professionals in unprivileged primary healthcare clinics in South Africa, with a focus on ear and hearing diagnostics: an interview study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Attitudes towards artificial intelligence among healthcare professionals in unprivileged primary healthcare clinics in South Africa, with a focus on ear and hearing diagnostics: an interview study
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Oto-rhino-laryngology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-246853 (URN)
Available from: 2025-11-26 Created: 2025-11-26 Last updated: 2025-11-26Bibliographically approved

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