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Direct observations of negative ions on the Lunar surface by Chang'E-6
Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF), Kiruna, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1760-210X
National Space Science Center (NSSC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF), Kiruna, Sweden.
National Space Science Center (NSSC), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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2025 (English)In: Communications Earth & Environment, E-ISSN 2662-4435, Vol. 6, no 1, article id 451Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The solar wind can interact directly with the surface of airless bodies like the Moon. The interaction causes sputtering of surface materials and solar wind ions are also partially backscattered to space. Particles leaving the surface can have any charge-state. At the Moon, backscattered or sputtered positive ions and energetic neutral atoms have been observed, but all attempts to find negative ions in electron measurements have failed so far. Here we present measurements by Chang’E-6 from the lunar farside revealing the existence of a layer of negative ions close to the lunar surface. We found that about  of the impinging solar wind protons charge exchange on the lunar regolith and are backscattered as negative hydrogen ions. The negative ion fraction is similar to the observed positive ion fraction1,3. We estimate a H− surface density of . On the dayside, the lifetime of negative hydrogen ions is short due to photodetachment10, confining them to a layer with a scale height of about 10 km. Such surface-bound layers or regions with negative ions should exist at any planetary object with a surface directly exposed to solar wind11,12, including low gravity bodies such as asteroids or comets.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2025. Vol. 6, no 1, article id 451
National Category
Astronomy, Astrophysics and Cosmology Fusion, Plasma and Space Physics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-250238DOI: 10.1038/s43247-025-02399-7ISI: 001506404700003Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-105007608050OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-250238DiVA, id: diva2:2041006
Funder
The European Space Agency (ESA), 3-17483/22/NL/DBAvailable from: 2026-02-23 Created: 2026-02-23 Last updated: 2026-02-23Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Observing solar wind interacting with regolith
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Observing solar wind interacting with regolith
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Alternative title[sv]
Observationer av solvindens växelverkan med regolit
Abstract [en]

This thesis aims to deepen our understanding of regolith – the layer of unconsolidated solid material that covers the bedrock of planetary bodies. For airless bodies, regolith forms the primary interface between the body and the energy and matter that permeate the solar system. One way to investigate regolith is by studying the products of its interactions with incident atomic particles. We develop a physical model of these interactions, derive observational predictions, and test them against measurements in order to evaluate and refine the model. As new data become available, this iterative, model-driven approach progressively constrains our knowledge of the physical properties of regolith.

To validate or refute such models, measurements of particles emitted from regolith are required. We addressed this need by developing a dedicated particle instrument, calibrating it, and deploying it on the lunar surface, where it directly measured particles emitted from lunar regolith. When exposed to precipitating ions and photons, lunar regolith responds by anisotropically emitting a zoo of particles spanning multiple charge states, species,and energies. The instrument was specifically designed to detect negatively charged ions emitted from the surface. It successfully performed this measurement and produced valuable observational data which, when interpreted through predictive modelling, indicate that lunar regolith is a surprisinglyefficient emitter of negative ions.

Abstract [sv]

Denna avhandling syftar till att fördjupa vår förståelse av regolit – det lager av löst sammanfogat material som täcker berggrunden på vissa himlakroppar. För luftlösa kroppar utgör regolit det primära gränssnittet mellan kroppen och den energi och materia som flödar genom solsystemet. Ett sätt att undersöka regolit är att studera produkterna av dess växelverkan med inkommande atomära partiklar. Vi utvecklar en fysikalisk modell av dessa interaktioner, härleder förutsägelser av observationer och testar dem mot mätningar för att utvärdera och förfina modellen. Allteftersom nya data blir tillgängliga avgränsar denna iterativa, modelldrivna metod successivt vår kunskap om regolitens fysikaliska egenskaper. För att validera eller motbevisa sådana modeller krävs mätningar av partiklar som avges från regolit. Vi tillgodosåg detta behov genom att utvecklaett specialiserat partikelinstrument, kalibrera det och placera det på månens yta, där det direkt mätte partiklar som avgavs från månregolit. När månregolit utsätts för inkommande joner och fotoner reagerar det genom att anisotropiskt avge en mängd olika sorters partiklar med flera laddningstillstånd och energier. Instrumentet var specifikt utformat för att detektera negativt laddade joner som avges från ytan. Det utförde framgångsrikt denna mätning och producerade värdefulla observationsdata som, när de tolkas genom prediktiv modellering, indikerar att månregolit är en överraskande effektiv källa av negativa joner.

Abstract [fr]

Cette thèse vise à approfondir notre compréhension du régolithe – la couche de matériau solide non consolidé qui recouvre le substrat rocheux des corps planétaires. Pour les corps dépourvus d’atmosphère, le régolithe constitue l’interface principale entre le corps et l’énergie ainsi que la matière qui imprègnent le système solaire. Une manière d’étudier le régolithe consiste à étudier les produits de ses interactions lorsqu’il est exposé à des particules. Nous développons un modèle physique de ces interactions, en dérivons des prédictions observationnelles, puis les confrontons aux mesures afin d’évaluer et d’affiner le modèle. À mesure que de nouvelles données deviennent disponibles, cette approche itérative permet de contraindre progressivement notre connaissance des propriétés physiques du régolithe.

Pour valider ou réfuter de tels modèles, des mesures des particules émises par le régolithe sont nécessaires. Nous avons répondu à ce besoin en développant un instrument dédié à la détection de particules, en le calibrant, puis en le déployant à la surface lunaire, où il a mesuré directement les particules émises par le régolithe lunaire. Lorsqu’il est exposé à des ions ou des photons, le régolithe lunaire réagit en émettant de manière anisotrope une grande diversité de particules couvrant plusieurs états de charge, espèces et énergies. L’instrument a été spécifiquement conçu pour détecter les ions négatifs émis depuis la surface. Il a accompli cette mesure avec succès et produit des données observationnelles précieuses qui, interprétées à l’aide de la modélisation prédictive, indiquent que le régolithe lunaire est un émetteur d’ions négatifs étonnamment efficace.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2026. p. 48
Series
IRF Scientific Report, ISSN 0284-1703 ; 320
Keywords
Particle instrument, solar wind, particle-surface interactions, geometric factor, Bayesian statistics, inference, lunar regolith, cometary regolith, Chang'e-6
National Category
Fusion, Plasma and Space Physics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-250126 (URN)978-91-8070-943-9 (ISBN)978-91-8070-944-6 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-03-23, Ljusårssalen (Aula), IRF Kiruna, Bengt Hultqvists väg 1, Kiruna, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2026-03-02 Created: 2026-02-20 Last updated: 2026-02-23Bibliographically approved

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