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Heterogeneity-aware building stock modelling for urban energy transitions
Umeå University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Physics and Electronics. (Intelligent Human-Buildings Interaction Lab)ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7790-4855
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Heterogenitetsmedveten modellering av byggnadsbestånd för urbana energiomställningar (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Bottom-up building stock modelling (BBSM) approach is widely used to assess the energy performance of urban building stocks by modelling individual buildings in detail and aggregating them to larger spatial scales. It plays an important role in supporting urban energy transition planning and policymaking. However, existing BBSM studies are constrained by several limitations, including incomplete building performance datasets, reliance on archetype-based averages in retrofit prioritization, simplified representations of occupant behaviour and building properties, and limited integration of modelling into public engagement tools. These limitations obscure inherent heterogeneity that determines which buildings benefit most from specific measures, leading to one-size-fits-all retrofit strategies and biased estimation of energy-saving potentials and policy effectiveness of energy transition initiatives.

This thesis advances heterogeneity-aware BBSM through an integrated and cumulative methodological pipeline that fuses incomplete building-performance datasets, enables localized retrofit prioritisation, and supports evaluation and communication of demand-side behavioural impacts. First, a data-fusion framework combines multiple incomplete datasets using probabilistic record linkage and inverse modelling, filling data gaps by transferring information across sources rather than relying on archetype-level averages. This improves stock representation by capturing building-to-building variation within the same urban context. Second, the thesis integrates data fusion with ensemble machine learning and explainable AI (SHAP) to identify impactful envelope retrofit measures in a local, data-driven manner. Across 81 building-stock clusters in three Swedish municipalities, the results demonstrate substantial variation in the most influential thermal components across municipalities and climate zones, underscoring the need for local-specific retrofit prioritisation. Third, the thesis incorporates occupant-behaviour diversity alongside building heterogeneity via an enhanced DOB-HUBS framework based on representative clustering, automated physics-based simulations, and surrogate machine learning. Empirical results of the Umeå building stock demonstrate that oversimplified behavioural and homogeneous assumptions can bias energy outcomes by up to 15% (standard deviation 3.06%). The framework is further used to assess Sweden’s forthcoming 2027 capacity-based electricity tariff, indicating that behavioural adaptations could reduce peak electricity demand by 6–17%, with heterogeneous impacts across clusters.

Building on these modelling advances, the thesis extends toward public engagement by developing data-driven benchmarking and interactive visual analytics platform that translate bottom-up modelling outputs into user-facing insights, including peer comparison and ‘what-if’ exploration of retrofit and behavioural scenarios. Collectively, the thesis contributes methods and empirical evidence for more credible, locally tailored, and publicly actionable building-stock analytics. This supports in designing targeted retrofit strategies, effective behavioural measures, and informed public participation in urban energy transition planning.

Abstract [sv]

Bottom-up-baserad modellering av byggnadsbestånd (BBSM) används i stor utsträckning för att bedöma energiprestandan hos urbana byggnadsbestånd genom att modellera enskilda byggnader i detalj och därefter aggregera resultaten till större spatial skala. Metoden spelar en viktig roll för planering och upprättandet av policys för urbana energiomställningar. Befintliga BBSM-studier begränsas av flera faktorer, däribland ofullständiga dataset gällande byggnaders energiprestanda, beroende av arketypbaserade genomsnitt vid prioritering av energieffektiviserande renoveringar, förenklade representationer av boendebeteende och byggnadsegenskaper samt begränsad integrering av modellering i verktyg avsedd för offentligt nyttjande. Dessa begränsningar döljer den inneboende heterogenitet som avgör vilka byggnader som har störst nytta av specifika åtgärder, vilket leder till generella renoveringsstrategier och snedvridna uppskattningar av potentialen för energibesparingars och policyers effektivitet i energiomställningsinitiativ.

Denna avhandling utvecklar heterogenitetsmedveten BBSM genom ett integrerat och kumulativt metodologiskt flöde som kombinerar ofullständiga dataset över byggnaders energiprestanda, möjliggör lokalprioritering av renoveringsåtgärder och stödjer utvärdering samt kommunikation av beteendebaserade effekter på efterfrågesidan. För det första kombinerar ett datafusionsramverk flera ofullständiga dataset genom probabilistisk postkoppling (probabilistic record linkage) och inverterad modellering, vilket fyller dataluckor genom att överföra information mellan datakällor i stället för att förlita sig på arketypbaserade genomsnitt. Detta förbättrar representationen av byggnadsbeståndet genom att fånga variation mellan enskilda byggnader inom samma urbana kontext. För det andra integrerar avhandlingen datafusion med ensemblebaserad maskininlärning och förklarbar AI (SHAP) för att identifiera effektiva klimatskalåtgärder på ett lokalt och datadrivet sätt. I analyser av 81 kluster av byggnadsbestånd i tre svenska kommuner visar resultaten betydande variation i vilka termiska komponenter som är mest inflytelserika mellan kommuner och klimatzoner, vilket understryker behovet av lokalt anpassad prioritering av renoveringsåtgärder. För det tredje integrerar avhandlingen variation i boendebeteende tillsammans med byggnadsheterogenitet genom ett utökat DOB-HUBS-ramverk baserat på representativ klustring, automatiserade fysikbaserade simuleringar och surrogate-maskininlärning. Empiriska resultat från byggnadsbeståndet i Umeå visar att förenklade beteendeantaganden och homogena antaganden kan snedvrida energiberäkningar med upp till 15 % (standardavvikelse 3,06 %). Ramverket används vidare för att analysera Sveriges kommande kapacitetsbaserade eltariff från 2027, där resultaten indikerar att beteendeanpassningar kan minska toppefterfrågan på el med 6–17 %, med heterogena effekter mellan olika kluster.

Med utgångspunkt i dessa modelleringsframsteg utvidgar avhandlingen även perspektivet mot offentligt nyttjande genom utvecklingen av en datadriven, interaktiv benchmarking- och visualiseringsplattform som översätter resultat från bottom-up-modellering till användarorienterad information, inklusive jämförelser med liknande byggnader och ”what-if”-utforskning av renoverings- och beteendescenarier. Sammantaget bidrar avhandlingen med metoder och empiriska resultat som möjliggör mer tillförlitlig, lokalt anpassad och praktiskt användbar analys av byggnadsbestånd. Detta stödjer utformningen av riktade renoveringsstrategier, effektiva beteendebaserade åtgärder och välgrundad offentlig medverkan i planeringen av urbana energiomställningar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2026. , p. 69
Keywords [en]
Urban energy transition, building stock, bottom-up, heterogeneity, tailored retrofitting, public engagement, machine learning
National Category
Energy Systems
Research subject
architecture, urban planning; climate change; sustainability; data science; sustainable development
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-251241ISBN: 978-91-8070-961-3 (print)ISBN: 978-91-8070-962-0 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-251241DiVA, id: diva2:2046936
Public defence
2026-04-29, NAT.D.300 (Hörsal), Floor 3, Natural Sciences Building, Universitetsvägen, 901 87, Umeå, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
EU, Horizon 2020, 101016854Swedish Research Council Formas, 2020-02085Swedish Research Council Formas, 2022-01475Swedish Energy Agency, P2022-00141Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1Available from: 2026-04-08 Created: 2026-03-18 Last updated: 2026-03-18Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Improved energy retrofit decision making through enhanced bottom-up building stock modelling
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Improved energy retrofit decision making through enhanced bottom-up building stock modelling
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2024 (English)In: Energy and Buildings, ISSN 0378-7788, E-ISSN 1872-6178, Vol. 318, article id 114492Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Modelling the performance of building stocks is crucial in facilitating the renovation at the building stock level. Bottom-up building stock modelling begins by detailing individual buildings and then aggregates them into stock level. Its primary advantage lies in capturing the inherent heterogeneity among distinct buildings, which enables tailored retrofitting. Naturally, this approach requires a comprehensive dataset with detailed building information such as geometry and envelope thermal properties. However, a common challenge is the incompleteness of available data in individual datasets. To address this, previous bottom-up studies have filled the missing data with representative or statistical data. Such practice could lead to homogeneous modelling of distinct buildings within the same statistical group. This limits the utilization of key ability of bottom-up building stock modelling in capturing heterogeneity, such as tailored retrofitting to explore potential retrofitting areas and strategies. To address this challenge of homogeneous modelling, we utilize data fusion framework for bottom-up building stock modelling, employing probabilistic record linkage and inverse modelling techniques to integrate multiple incomplete building performance datasets. This framework fills the missing data in one dataset with information from another, thus capturing inherent heterogeneity in the building stock. An empirical study was conducted in Umeå, Sweden, to investigate the framework's effectiveness by modelling building stock with various retrofitting strategies. This study contribution lies in enhancing bottom-up building stock modelling by capturing inherent heterogeneity, to provide tailored retrofitting solutions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2024
Keywords
Bottom-up, Building stock modelling, Data fusion, Energy efficiency, Heterogeneity, Incomplete data, Inverse modelling, Record linkage
National Category
Other Civil Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-227827 (URN)10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114492 (DOI)001262604500001 ()2-s2.0-85197361082 (Scopus ID)
Projects
Intelligent Human-Buildings Interactions Lab: Identify, Quantify and Guide Energy-saving Behavior at University CampusRESILIENTa Energisystem Kompetenscentrum
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2022-01475Swedish Energy Agency, P2022-00141Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1Swedish Research Council Formas, 2020-02085
Available from: 2024-07-12 Created: 2024-07-12 Last updated: 2026-03-18Bibliographically approved
2. An integrated framework for tailored building envelope retrofits in swedish municipalities: from heterogeneous big data to explainable AI
Open this publication in new window or tab >>An integrated framework for tailored building envelope retrofits in swedish municipalities: from heterogeneous big data to explainable AI
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other (popular science, discussion, etc.))
National Category
Building Technologies
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-250678 (URN)
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2022-01475Swedish Energy Agency, P2022-00141Swedish Research Council Formas, 2020-02085Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1
Available from: 2026-03-05 Created: 2026-03-05 Last updated: 2026-03-18Bibliographically approved
3. Diverse occupant behaviour and urban building heterogeneity to enhance urban building energy modelling
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Diverse occupant behaviour and urban building heterogeneity to enhance urban building energy modelling
2026 (English)In: Energy and Buildings, ISSN 0378-7788, E-ISSN 1872-6178, Vol. 351, article id 116721Article in journal (Other (popular science, discussion, etc.)) Published
Abstract [en]

Upcoming energy transition initiatives, such as Sweden’s capacity-based electricity tariff in 2027, aims to incentivize changes in occupant behaviour (OB) influencing how occupants schedule and shift energy use. Urban building energy modelling (UBEM) is widely used for city-level energy assessment. However, most UBEM studies assume uniform occupant behaviour and homogeneous building properties due to modelling limitations in incorporating diversity and heterogeneity, which is computational infeasible at large scale. In practice, OB varies across demographics and seasonal routines, while heterogeneous building properties such as U-values, HVAC, archetypes directly affect energy impacts. Oversimplifying OB diversity and urban building heterogeneity can misrepresent energy demand, peak loads, and policy effectiveness of energy transition initiatives.

This study introduces an enhanced framework, referred as DOB-HUBS, that explicitly incorporates OB diversity (e.g., seasonal, demographic) along with urban heterogeneity into UBEM. This enables ability to evaluate behavioural impacts across heterogeneous building clusters and occupants’ seasonal interactions. The approach employs unsupervised K-Means clustering and proportional stratified sampling to identify representative buildings, an automated bottom-up physics simulation workflow programmatically assigning diverse OB schedules and building properties, and an ensemble machine learning model that efficiently extrapolates predictions to the entire stock. This framework is demonstrated in Sweden, by evaluating seasonal impacts of excessive window opening, and behavioural responses to 2027 tariff policy. Results reveal strong seasonal dependence of OB, with deviations of up to 15% with 3.06% (standard deviation) energy use compared to traditional approach. Behavioural responses to 2027 policy could reduce peak loads by 6–17%, with impacts varying across small building clusters. By evaluating OB diversity and urban heterogeneity, DOB-HUBS enhances UBEM, supporting urban planners and policymakers in designing more effective occupant engagement strategies.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2026
Keywords
Urban building energy modelling, Diverse occupant behaviour, Urban heterogeneity, Representative sampling, Machine learning, Occupant engagement
National Category
Building Technologies
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-250673 (URN)10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.116721 (DOI)001619483400005 ()
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2022-01475; 2020-02085Swedish Energy Agency, P2022-00141Swedish Energy Agency, 52686-1
Available from: 2026-03-05 Created: 2026-03-05 Last updated: 2026-03-18Bibliographically approved
4. Data-driven quantitative analysis of an integrated open digital ecosystems platform for user-centric energy retrofits: A case study in northern Sweden
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Data-driven quantitative analysis of an integrated open digital ecosystems platform for user-centric energy retrofits: A case study in northern Sweden
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2023 (English)In: Technology in society, ISSN 0160-791X, E-ISSN 1879-3274, Vol. 75, article id 102347Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This paper presents an open digital ecosystem based on a web-framework with a functional back-end server for user-centric energy retrofits. This data-driven web framework is proposed for building energy renovation benchmarking as part of an energy advisory service development for the Västerbotten region, Sweden. A 4-tier architecture is developed and programmed to achieve users’ interactive design and visualization via a web browser. Six data-driven methods are integrated into this framework as backend server functions. Based on these functions, users can be supported by this decision-making system when they want to know if a renovation is needed or not. Meanwhile, influential factors (input values) from the database that affect energy usage in buildings are to be analyzed via quantitative analysis, i.e., sensitivity analysis. The contributions to this open ecosystem platform in energy renovation are: 1) A systematic framework that can be applied to energy efficiency with data-driven approaches, 2) A user-friendly web-based platform that is easy and flexible to use, and 3) integrated quantitative analysis into the framework to obtain the importance among all the relevant factors. This computational framework is designed for stakeholders who would like to get preliminary information in energy advisory. The improved energy advisor service enabled by the developed platform can significantly reduce the cost of decision-making, enabling decision-makers to participate in such professional knowledge-required decisions in a deliberate and efficient manner. This work is funded by the AURORAL project, which integrates an open and interoperable digital platform, demonstrated through regional large-scale pilots in different countries of Europe by interdisciplinary applications.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2023
Keywords
Energy retrofits, Data-driven modeling, Decision support systems (DSS), Quantitative analysis, Open ecosystem platform
National Category
Electrical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Information Engineering Energy Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-214835 (URN)10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102347 (DOI)001086968700001 ()2-s2.0-85172316454 (Scopus ID)
Funder
The Kempe Foundations, JCK-2136EU, Horizon 2020, 101016854J. Gust. Richert stiftelse, 2023-00884Swedish Research Council, 2018-05973Swedish Research Council, 2022-06725
Available from: 2023-10-02 Created: 2023-10-02 Last updated: 2026-03-18Bibliographically approved
5. Interactive visual analytics platform for public engagement in energy-efficient building transitions: evidence from a Nordic city empirical study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Interactive visual analytics platform for public engagement in energy-efficient building transitions: evidence from a Nordic city empirical study
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other (popular science, discussion, etc.))
National Category
Building Technologies
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-250679 (URN)
Available from: 2026-03-05 Created: 2026-03-05 Last updated: 2026-03-18Bibliographically approved

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