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Metal-doped β-tricalcium phosphate for multifunctional applications: structural and spectroscopic insights
Umeå University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Physics and Electronics.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0132-4456
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Metalldopat β-trikalciumfosfat för multifunktionella tillämpningar : strukturella och spektroskopiska insikter (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Structure–property relationships are a fundamental concept in the design of novel materials for multifunctional applications. The ability to control and modify the properties of materials relies on the understanding of these relationships, given that a minor change in the material structure induces substantial differences in its properties.

β-Tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) is a promising multifunctional material with a flexible crystal structure comprising multiple Ca sites available for cationic substitution. This flexibility has sparked intensive research efforts to explore the possibilities of tuning its functional properties via metal doping. Despite these efforts, the structure–property relationships in metal-doped β-TCP remain not fully understood. This can be attributed to the complexity of the β-TCP crystal structure and to the limited data on the factors governing doping characteristics. Therefore, a systematic investigation is essential to accurately determine the effects of doping on the structure, properties, and potential of this versatile material.  

This thesis establishes a comprehensive foundation for understanding the structure–property relationships of β-TCP and its metal-doped variants. Zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) were chosen as dopants, and their effects on the structure and properties of the material were studied. A three-stage solid-state synthesis method for producing high-purity materials was developed using a combination of thermodynamic equilibrium calculations and experimental trials. The synthesized materials were extensively characterized using various analytical techniques for accurate determination of their properties. The structural investigations revealed that doping of Zn2+ and Cu2+ in β-TCP induced a shrinkage in its unit cell. These divalent metals were confirmed to occupy Ca4 and Ca5 in the unit cell, and their site occupancy preference was found to be concentration-dependent. The observed vibrational characteristics suggested a reduction in the symmetry of the P1 site due to the substitution of calcium (Ca) ions by the dopants at the neighbouring Ca4 site. The morphology of the materials exhibited minor changes characterized by non-uniform grain size. The optical investigations revealed that the host matrix effect dominated the optical absorption characteristics of the doped materials with a slight reduction in the band gap energy. On the other hand, the photoluminescence properties of β-TCP were significantly altered by the metal doping. Cu-doped variants exhibited well-defined emissions in the visible range. In contrast, low-intensity emissions were detected for Zn-doped samples. The photocatalytic activity of β-TCP and its Zn-doped counterparts was investigated for the degradation of organic dyes. The Zn-doped materials demonstrated clear improvement in the photocatalytic performance as compared to the host material. Finally, the frequency-dependent electrical characteristics of the materials were investigated in detail. The results showed that doping of Zn2+ and Cu2+ notably enhanced the charge storage and conduction capability of β-TCP. The materials displayed a non-Debye relaxation that was attributed to grain and grain boundary contributions. 

This thesis demonstrates the potential of metal-doped β-TCP as a multifunctional material and can guide future efforts to meet the emerging demands of sustainable materials design and applications.

Abstract [sv]

Sambanden mellan struktur och egenskaper är  grundläggande  vid design av nya material för multifunktionella tillämpningar. Förmågan att styra och modifiera materialegenskaper bygger på förståelsen av dessa samband, eftersom en liten förändring i materialets struktur inducerar betydande skillnader i dess egenskaper.

β-trikalciumfosfat (β-TCP) är ett lovande multifunktionellt material med en flexibel kristallstruktur som innehåller flera kalciumpositioner tillgängliga för katjonisk substitution. Denna flexibilitet har gett upphov till omfattande forskning om möjligheterna att anpassa dess funktionella egenskaper genom metalldopning. Trots dessa insatser är struktur–egenskapsrelationerna för metalldopat β-TCP ännu inte fullständigt klarlagda. Detta kan tillskrivas komplexiteten i β-TCP: s kristallstruktur samt bristen på tillräckliga data rörande de faktorer som styr dopingsegenskaperna. Därför är en systematisk undersökning av största vikt för att möjliggöra en korrekt bestämning av dopningseffekter på struktur, egenskaper och potential hos detta mångsidiga material.

Denna avhandling lägger en bred grund för förståelsen av sambandet mellan struktur och egenskaper för β-TCP och dess metalldopade varianter. Zink (Zn) och koppar (Cu) valdes som dopningsämnen och deras inverkan på materialets struktur och egenskaper har studerats. En trestegs sintringsmetod för framställning av höggradigt rena material  utvecklades baserat på en kombination av termodynamiska jämviktsberäkningar och experimentella försök. En omfattande karakterisering av de framställda materialen genomfördes med olika analytiska tekniker för att noggrant bestämma deras egenskaper. De strukturella undersökningarna visade att dopning med Zn2+ och Cu2+ i β-TCP orsakade en kontraktion av dess enhetscell. Dessa tvåvärda metaller konstaterades uppta positionerna Ca4 och Ca5 i enhetscellen, och deras preferens för platsockupation visade sig vara koncentrationsberoende. De observerade vibrationsegenskaperna tydde på en sänkt symmetri vid P1-positionen till följd av substitution av kalciumjoner (Ca2+) med dopningsjoner vid den angränsande Ca4-positionen. Morfologin hos de framställda materialen uppvisade mindre förändringar i form av ojämn kornstorleksfördelning. De optiska undersökningarna visade att värdmatriseffekten dominerade de optiska absorptionsegenskaperna hos de dopade materialen, med en liten minskning av bandgapets energi. Å andra sidan förändrades fotoluminesensen hos β-TCP avsevärt på grund av metalldopningen. Cu-dopade varianter uppvisade väldefinierade emissioner i det synliga området, medan lågintensiva emissioner uppmättes för Zn-dopade prover. Den fotokatalytiska aktiviteten hos β-TCP och dess Zn-dopade motsvarigheter undersöktes med avseende på nedbrytning av organiska färgämnen. De dopade materialen uppvisade en markant förbättring av den fotokatalytiska prestandan jämfört med värdmaterialet, vilket indikerar deras lämplighet för miljösaneringstillämpningar. Slutligen studerades de frekvensberoende elektriska egenskaperna hos de framställda materialen i detalj. Resultaten visade att dopning med Zn2+ och Cu2+ avsevärt förbättrar β-TCP: s förmåga till laddningslagring och ledning. Materialen uppvisade en icke-Debye relaxation som tillskrevs korn och korngränser.

Denna avhandling visar potentialen hos metalldopat β-TCP som ett multifunktionellt material och kan vägleda framtida insatser för att möta de föränderliga behoven inom hållbar materialdesign och tillämpningar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2026. , p. 84
Keywords [en]
β-tricalcium phosphate, zinc, copper, doping, thermodynamic equilibrium calculations, crystal structure, photoluminescence, photocatalysis, impedance spectroscopy.
National Category
Condensed Matter Physics
Research subject
Solid State Physics; Materials Science; Physics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-252986ISBN: 978-91-6850-039-3 (print)ISBN: 978-91-6850-040-9 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-252986DiVA, id: diva2:2058544
Public defence
2026-06-04, Lindellhallen 1 (Hörsal UB.A.210), Umeå, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2026-05-13 Created: 2026-05-07 Last updated: 2026-05-08Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Thermodynamic modelling assisted three-stage solid state synthesis of high purity β-Ca3(PO4)2
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Thermodynamic modelling assisted three-stage solid state synthesis of high purity β-Ca3(PO4)2
2024 (English)In: Materials & design, ISSN 0264-1275, E-ISSN 1873-4197, Vol. 238, article id 112679Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

A three-stage solid state synthesis assisted by thermodynamic modelling was developed to prepare highly pure (>99 %) beta tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) powder. The optimal synthesis temperature was experimentally determined to be 1000 °C in good agreement with the theoretical calculations. The synthesis design described here has substantially improved the product quality and eliminated the presence of secondary phosphate phases compared to one- and two-stage methods investigated in this work. A comprehensive characterization of the material's structural, vibrational, and morphological characteristics was conducted. Rietveld refinement of the X-ray diffraction data confirmed the high purity of the samples. The crystal structure of the prepared β-TCP was determined and the refined unit cell parameters agreed well with the reference values. From infrared and Raman spectral analyses, the characteristics of β-TCP were observed and discussed in details. Furthermore, the morphology and elemental composition of the products were examined and found to be homogenous and impurity free. The reproducibility of the material was scrutinized and showed no significant data variations. Using our three-stage synthesis method, it is possible to produce β-TCP powder of high purity with consistent repeatability.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2024
Keywords
Calcium phosphate, FTIR, Raman, Rietveld refinement, Solid state synthesis, Thermodynamics, β-TCP
National Category
Materials Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-220444 (URN)10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112679 (DOI)001177802800001 ()2-s2.0-85183319047 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2017-05331Swedish Research Council Formas, 2017-01613Bio4Energy
Available from: 2024-02-09 Created: 2024-02-09 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
2. New insights into structural and spectroscopic characteristics of Cu2+ doped β-Ca3(PO4)2: correlation between Cu2+ concentration and material properties
Open this publication in new window or tab >>New insights into structural and spectroscopic characteristics of Cu2+ doped β-Ca3(PO4)2: correlation between Cu2+ concentration and material properties
2025 (English)In: Materials & design, ISSN 0264-1275, E-ISSN 1873-4197, Vol. 252, article id 113718Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Doping β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) with copper (Cu2+) has great potential in various applications due to its rich chemistry. However, the doping characteristics are rarely studied in detail and are yet to be fully understood, creating a gap in the existing knowledge of these multifunctional materials. In this work, a series of Cu2+ doped β-TCP (Cux-TCPs) were prepared and comprehensively characterized to investigate the correlation between Cu2+ doping and the material properties. Also, the synthesis of Cux-TCPs was modeled using thermodynamic equilibrium calculations to investigate their formation pathways. The calculations predicted a possible inclusion of Cu2+ in intermediate phosphate phases during the material synthesis, depending on the temperature. The structural analyses revealed lattice shrinkage due to the Cu2+ doping and that Cu2+ occupied Ca4 and Ca5 sites in the β-TCP crystal. The vibrational spectroscopy of the Cux-TCPs showed noticeable deformation of ν1 band of PO43− ligand. The ultraviolet-visible absorption analysis revealed a reduction in the band gap energy induced by Cu2+ doping. Photoluminescence spectroscopy demonstrated an enhanced emission tunability of Cux-TCPs in the blue and orange–red regions depending on Cu2+ concentration. These findings are a step toward a deeper understanding of the structure–property relationships of Cu2+ doped β-TCPs and can play a significant role in their multidisciplinary applications.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2025
Keywords
β-TCP, Doping, Cu2+, Thermodynamic modeling, XRD, Rietveld refinement, Photoluminescence spectroscopy
National Category
Physical Sciences Condensed Matter Physics
Research subject
Materials Science; Solid State Physics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-235763 (URN)10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113718 (DOI)001432487500001 ()2-s2.0-85217946689 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2025-02-21 Created: 2025-02-21 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
3. The impact of Zn2+ doping in modifying the surface, structural, and photocatalytic properties of β-Ca3(PO4)2
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The impact of Zn2+ doping in modifying the surface, structural, and photocatalytic properties of β-Ca3(PO4)2
2025 (English)In: Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, ISSN 0021-9797, E-ISSN 1095-7103, Vol. 698, article id 138022Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In this study, the impact of Zn2+ doping on β-Ca3(PO4)2 characteristics was investigated with particular focus on its influence on the surface, structure, and photocatalytic properties. Zn2+ doped β-Ca3(PO4)2 (Znx-TCPs) were synthesized using a solid-state method and were thoroughly studied to evaluate the modification induced by cationic substitution. The structural analysis revealed a noticeable shrinkage in the lattice parameters a and c and the unit cell volume induced by Zn2+ doping. Minor spectral changes in the vibrational modes of PO43− were also observed in the infrared and Raman spectra of Znx-TCPs. The influence of doping on the materials’ morphology was insignificant; however, molten grain boundaries were noticeable at high Zn concentration, x ≥ 1. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed that the surface of the doped materials was rich in Zn. Optical absorption measurements indicated that Zn2+ doping slightly affects the optical bandgap of β-Ca3(PO4)2. The photocatalytic activities of the materials were investigated for the degradation of Rhodamine B (RB) and Methylene blue (MB). The photocatalytic experiments were carried out in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and under simulated solar light. The samples exhibited enhanced catalytic activity compared to β-Ca3(PO4)2, and the Zn0.5-TCP sample demonstrated the highest degradation efficiency. This sample showed excellent stability during the reusability tests, which suggests the suitability of Zn0.5-TCP for use as an efficient photocatalyst. Surface defects are believed to play an important role in the production of active species during the photocatalytic reaction.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2025
National Category
Physical Sciences Materials Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-239697 (URN)10.1016/j.jcis.2025.138022 (DOI)40466600 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105007089637 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2025-06-07 Created: 2025-06-07 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
4. Dielectric, impedance, and electric modulus spectroscopy of metal-doped β-tricalcium phosphate: the role of Zn2+ and Cu2+
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Dielectric, impedance, and electric modulus spectroscopy of metal-doped β-tricalcium phosphate: the role of Zn2+ and Cu2+
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Keywords
β-tricalcium phosphate, dielectric permittivity, doping, electrical properties, impedance spectroscopy, modulus spectroscopy
National Category
Condensed Matter Physics
Research subject
Materials Science; Solid State Physics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-252982 (URN)
Available from: 2026-05-07 Created: 2026-05-07 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved

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