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Sustainable approaches for processing of PHA-containing biomass: extraction and valorization towards biobased products
Umeå University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry. (Knut Irgum)ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3458-939x
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Hållbara metoder för bearbetning av PHA-innehållande biomassa : utvinning och valorisering mot biobaserade produkter (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Plastic materials are an inseparable part of everyday life, but their widespread use comes with significant environmental challenges. The OECD reports that global plastics pro­duction has exceeded 400 Mt per year in recent years, and plastic pollution is now detected even in remote ecosystems. Growing interest is therefore directed toward bio­plastics that are biologically produced and/or biodegradable. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are a family of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters produced by micro­organisms as intracellular storage granules. PHAs consist of 3-hydroxy acid monomer units and can exhibit diverse and attractive material properties depending on their monomer composition. This thesis explores multiple stages of the PHA life cycle – from screening and fermentation to downstream recovery and end-of-life valorization – through the principles of green chemistry and within the broader framework of an inte­grated biorefinery concept.

At the beginning of the PHA life cycle, or even before production itself, small-scale screening is important for identifying promising bacterial strains and suitable cultiva­tion media for growth and PHA production. This topic was investigated in Paper I, where two bacterial species, Halomonas sp. R5-57, a short-chain-length PHA producer, and Pseudomonas sp. MR4-9, a medium-chain-length PHA producer, were screened in high-throughput mode by cultivation in 96-well plates followed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Selected results were subsequently quantified and con­firmed at a larger cultivation scale. This study demonstrated that high-throughput screening is a powerful tool for evaluating large numbers of cultivation conditions, particularly different carbon sources, and for selecting the most promising candidates for confirmation at a larger scale. From a biorefinery perspective, this approach could also support the rapid assessment of waste streams or renewable raw materials as potential substrates for PHA production.

Upstream processing was further investigated in Paper II, with a focus on lowering feedstock costs by using crude industrial glycerol as an alternative carbon source for Photobacterium ganghwense C2.2 and comparing it with pure glycerol. Crude glycerol supported faster biomass formation but resulted in lower overall PHA production and lower polymer molecular weight, while enabling recovery of fatty acid impurities from the crude feedstock. The use of an inexpensive crude substrate to obtain higher biomass formation and lower-molecular-weight PHA provides a relevant perspective for inte­grated biomass valorization, especially when such materials can be further converted into higher-value products.

Since downstream processing strongly affects both process economics and sustain­ability, Paper III evaluated dihydrolevoglucosenone, commercially known as Cyrene, as a biobased and biodegradable extraction solvent, with emphasis on solvent reuse and avoidance of toxic solvent waste. In an integrated process concept, spent biobased solvent that can no longer be reused may also be considered for energy recovery. The extraction process was optimized at small scale using design of experiments and multi­variate modeling, targeting extraction yield and polymer molecular weight. Based on the optimized conditions, upscaling experiments in a stirred cell were performed and showed improved extraction performance under scaled conditions.

Finally, PHAs were explored not only from an end-of-life perspective, but also as sub­strates for valorization and quality restoration. Low-molecular-weight PHA can be de­polymerized into monomers or platform chemicals and potentially repolymerized into higher-quality polymers, offering a strategy for upgrading materials such as the PHA obtained from crude glycerol in Paper II. Paper IV investigated the selective convers­ion of PHB to crotonic acid (CA) in the basic ionic liquid [EMIM][AcO], which acts as both solvent and catalyst. Paper V examined acid-catalyzed hydrolysis using a Brønsted-acid ionic liquid, [ImSO₃H][p-TsO], in a biphasic water/MIBK system, enabling the formation of mainly 3-hydroxybutyric acid (3-HBA), with CA as a bypro­duct, and facilitating phase separation between the products and the ionic liquid cata­lyst. In Paper VI, p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TsOH)-catalyzed alcoholysis of PHB was demonstrated using methanol and ethanol, highlighting process flexibility by enabling subsequent hydrolysis in the same reactor after solvent/reactant exchange.

Abstract [sv]

Fastän plastmaterial är en oskiljaktig del av vardagen, medför den utbredda användning­en betydande miljöutmaningar. Enligt OECD har den årliga globala plastproduktionen över­stigit 400 Mt de senaste åren och plastförorening utgör ett problem även i avlägsna eko­system. Växande intresse riktas därför mot bioplaster som är biologiskt producerade och/eller biologiskt nedbrytbara. Polyhydroxialkanoater (PHA) är en familj av biolog­iskt nedbrytbara och biokompatibla polyestrar som produceras av mikroorganismer i form av intracellulära lagringsgranuler. PHA består av 3-hydr­oxisyror med varierande sidokedjor som gemensamma monomera byggstenar och de kan uppvisa olika och att­raktiva materialegenskaper beroende på monomersammansättning. Denna avhandling utforskar flera steg i polyhydroxialkanoaternas livscykel – från screening och fermente­ring till nedströmsåtervinning och utvinning vid livscykelns slut – genom principerna för grön kemi och inom den bredare ramen för ett integrerat bioraffinaderikoncept.

I början av en PHA:s livscykel, eller till och med före själva produktionen, är småskalig screening viktig för att identifiera lovande bakteriestammar och lämpliga odlingsmedier för tillväxt och PHA-produktion. Detta ämne undersöktes i Artikel I, där två bakterie­arter, Halomonas sp. R5-57, en PHA-producent med kort kedjelängd, och Pseudomonas sp. MR4-9, en PHA-producent med medellånga kedjor, screenades i högkapacitetsläge genom odling i 96-brunnsplattor följt av analys med Fourier-transform infrarödspektro­skopi (FTIR). Utvalda resultat kvantifierades och bekräftades därefter i större odlings­skala. Denna studie visade att högkapacitetsscreening är ett kraftfullt verktyg för att ut­värdera ett stort antal odlingsförhållanden, i synnerhet olika kolkällor, och för att välja de mest lovande kandidaterna för bekräftelse i större skala. Ur ett bioraffinaderiperspek­tiv skulle denna metod också kunna stödja snabb bedömning av avfallsströmmar eller förnybara råvaror som potentiella substrat för PHA-produktion.

Uppströmsbearbetning undersöktes vidare i Artikel II, med fokus på att sänka råmate­rialkostnaderna genom att använda rå industriell glycerol som en alternativ kolkälla för Photobacterium ganghwense C2.2 och jämföra den med ren glycerol. Användning av rå glycerol resulterade i snabbare biomassabildning, men lägre total PHA-produktion och lägre molekylvikt for de producerade polymererna, samtidigt som det gav möjlighet att åter­vinna av fettsyraföroreningar från råmaterialet. Användningen av ett billigt råsubst­rat för att uppnå hög biomassabildning och PHA med lägre molekylvikt ger ett relevant perspektiv för integrerad biomassavärdering, särskilt när sådana material kan omvand­las ytterligare till produkter med högre värde.

Eftersom nedströmsbearbetning starkt påverkar både processekonomi och hållbarhet, utvärderade Artikel III dihydrolevoglukosenon, kommersiellt känt som Cyrene, som ett biobaserat och biologiskt nedbrytbart lösningsmedel for extraktion av PHA, med målet att återanvända lösningsmedlet och undvika av giftigt lösningsmedelsavfall. I ett integrerat processkoncept kan använt biobaserat lösningsmedel som inte längre kan återanvändas också övervägas för energiåtervinning. Extraktionsprocessen optimerades i liten skala med hjälp av experimentdesign och multivariat modellering, med inriktning på extraktionsutbyte och polymermolekylvikt. Baserat på de optimerade förhållandena utfördes uppskalningsexperiment i en omrörd cell och visade förbättrad extraktionspre­standa under uppskalade förhållanden.

Slutligen undersöktes PHA inte bara ur ett livscykelperspektiv, utan även som substrat för värdeökning och kvalitetsåterställning. Lågmolekylära PHA kan depolymeriseras till monomerer eller plattformskemikalier och potentiellt repolymeriseras till polymerer av högre kvalitet, vilket erbjuder en strategi för att uppgradera material som PHA som er­hålls från rå glycerol i Artikel II. Artikel IV undersökte den selektiva omvandlingen av PHB till krotonsyra (CA) i den basiska jonvätskan [EMIM][AcO], som fungerar som både lösningsmedel och katalysator. Artikel V undersökte syrakatalyserad hydrolys med användning av en jonvätska med Brønstedsura egenskaper, [ImSO₃H][p-TsO], i ett tvåfasigt vatten/MIBK-system, vilket möjliggör bildandet av huvudsakligen 3-hydr­oxismörsyra (3-HBA), med CA som biprodukt, och underlättar fasseparation mellan produkterna och den joniska vätskan som utgör katalysator. I Artikel VI demonstrera­des p-toluensulfonsyra (p-TsOH)-katalyserad alkoholys av PHB med användning av metanol och etanol, vilket belyser processflexibilitet genom att möjliggöra efterföljande hydrolys i samma reaktor efter lösningsmedels-/reaktantutbyte.

Abstract [pl]

Tworzywa polimerowe są nieodłącznym elementem codziennego życia, jednak ich powszechne stosowanie wiąże się z istotnymi wyzwaniami środowiskowymi. Według OECD roczna, globalna produkcja tworzyw sztucznych przekroczyła w ostatnich latach 400 Mt, a zanieczyszczenia polimerowe są wykrywane nawet w odległych ekosyste-mach. Z tego powodu rośnie zainteresowanie biotworzywami pochodzącymi ze źródeł odnawialnych i/lub ulegającymi biodegradacji. Polihydroksyalkaniany (PHA) stano­wią rodzinę biodegradowalnych i biokompatybilnych biopoliestrów, produkowanych jako wewnątrzkomórkowy materiał zapasowy przez mikroorganizmy. Jednostkami powtarzalnymi PHA są kwasy 3-hydroksyalkanowe. W zależności od składu mono-merowego PHA mogą wykazywać zróżnicowane właściwości. Niniejsza rozprawa obejmuje analizę wybranych etapów życia PHA, od wysokoprzepustowych badań przesiewowych (HTS, ang. high-throughput screening) i fermentacji bakteryjnej, poprzez ekstrakcję i oczyszczanie produktu, aż po waloryzację na końcu cyklu życia, w oparciu o zasady zie­lonej chemii oraz w szerszym kontekście koncepcji biorafinerii.

Na etapie wstępnym, poprzedzającym właściwą produkcję PHA, badania przesiewowe w małej skali są kluczowe dla wyboru obiecujących szczepów oraz warunków hodowli sprzyjających wzrostowi i biosyntezie PHA. Zagadnienie to podjęto w Pracy I, w której dwa szczepy bakterii, Halomonas sp. R5-57 (prowadzący do syntezy krótkich łańcu­chów PHA, scl-PHA, ang. short-chain-length PHA) oraz Pseudomonas sp. MR4-9 (pro­wadzący do syntezy PHA o średniej długości łańcucha, mcl-PHA, ang. medium-chain-length PHA), przebadano w trybie HTS poprzez hodowlę w płytkach 96-dołkowych i analizę metodą spektroskopii w podczerwieni z transformacją Fouriera (FTIR). Najbardziej obiecujące warunki zweryfikowano następnie w większej skali, a zawartość polimeru potwierdzono ilościowo. Wyniki wskazały, że HTS pozwala na sprawną ocenę znacznej liczby zróżnicowanych warunków, w szczególności odmiennych źródeł węgla, oraz wytypowanie parametrów do dalszych badań w większej skali. Z perspektywy bio­rafinerii może to ułatwiać szybką ocenę frakcji odpadowych i surowców odnawialnych jako potencjalnych substratów do produkcji PHA.

Etap hodowli i produkcji PHA analizowano następnie w Pracy II, koncentrując się na obniżeniu kosztów surowca. Porównano efektywność wykorzystania gliceryny przemy­słowej jako alternatywnego źródła węgla dla Photobacterium ganghwense C2.2 w stosun­ku do analogicznego procesu z zastosowaniem czystej gliceryny. Gliceryna przemysło­wa sprzyjała szybszemu przyrostowi biomasy, jednak prowadziła do niższej wydajności produkcji PHA oraz polimeru o niższej masie molowej, jednocześnie umożliwiając odzyskiwanie zanieczyszczeń kwasami tłuszczowymi z przemysłowego substratu. Wykorzystanie taniego, nieoczyszczonego substratu do uzyskania większej ilości biomasy oraz PHA o niższej masie cząsteczkowej może odgrywać znaczącą rolę w zintegrowanej waloryzacji biomasy, zwłaszcza gdy taki materiał jest przeznaczony jako surowiec do syntezy produktów o wyższej wartości.

Odzysk i oczyszczanie produktu istotnie wpływają zarówno na ekonomikę procesu, jak i jego zrównoważony charakter, w Pracy III opisano zastosowanie dihydrolewogluko­zononu (Cyrene) jako biopochodnego i biodegradowalnego rozpuszczalnika ekstrak­cyjnego. Szczególny nacisk położono na możliwość wielokrotnego wykorzystania roz­puszczalnika oraz ograniczenie obciążeń środowiskowych wynikających ze stosowania rozpuszczalników toksycznych. W ujęciu procesowym zużyty rozpuszczalnik biopo­chodny, nienadający się do ponownego użycia, może być również rozważany pod kątem odzysku energii. Proces zoptymalizowano w małej skali z wykorzystaniem planowania eksperymentów (DoE- ang. design of experiments) i modelowania wielowymiarowego, skupiając się na wydajności ekstrakcji oraz masie molowej polimeru. Dla wytypowa­nych optymalnych warunków przeprowadzono następnie próby skalowania w reakto-rze z mieszadłem, wykazując poprawę efektywności ekstrakcji.

W części dotyczącej końcowego etapu cyklu życia PHA pokazano, że mogą one być nie tylko odpadem do zagospodarowania, ale też surowcem do waloryzacji i odzysku mate­riału. W tym podejściu PHA o niskiej masie molowej mogą być depolimeryzowane do monomerów lub związków podstawowych (?), a następnie potencjalnie wykorzystane do repolimeryzacji, prowadzącej do uzyskania polimerów o wysokiej jakości. Tak zaprojektowany proces może służyć udoskonalaniu materiałów, takich jak stosunkowo tanie PHA otrzymane z gliceryny przemysłowej w Pracy II. W Pracy IV badano selek­tywną konwersję poli(3-hydroksymaślanu) (PHB) do kwasu krotonowego w zasado­wej cieczy jonowej [EMIM][AcO], która pełniła również funkcję katalizatora. W Pracy V analizowano hydrolizę PHB katalizowaną kwasową cieczą jonową Brønsteda [ImSO₃H][p-TsO] w układzie dwufazowym woda/metyloizobutyloketon (MIBK). Otrzymano w ten sposób kwas 3-hydroksymasłowy jako główny produkt (z kwasem krotonowym jako produktem ubocznym) przy jednoczesnym podziale fazowym pro­duktów i katalizatora. W Pracy VI przedstawiono alkoholizę PHB metanolem i eta­nolem katalizowaną kwasem p-toluenosulfonowym (p-TsOH), podkreślając elastycz­ność procesu w związku z możliwością przeprowadzania kolejnych reakcji hydrolizy w tym samym reaktorze po wymianie rozpuszczalnika i reagenta.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå universitet , 2026. , p. 57
Keywords [en]
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), Alternative feedstocks, Bioplastics, Biorefinery, Green extraction, Chemical recycling, PHA depolymerization, Platform chemicals
Keywords [sv]
Polyhydroxialkanoater (PHA), Alternativa råvaror, Bioplaster, Bioraffinaderi, Grön extraktion, Kemisk återvinning, PHA-depolymerisering, Plattformkemikalier
National Category
Polymer Technologies
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-253901ISBN: 978-91-6850-080-5 (print)ISBN: 978-91-6850-081-2 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-253901DiVA, id: diva2:2064674
Public defence
2026-08-28, KB.E3.01 (Lilla hörsalen), Kemiskt Biologiskt Centrum (KBC), Linnaeus väg 6, Umeå, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Mistra - The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research, 2016- 02011Available from: 2026-06-05 Created: 2026-06-02 Last updated: 2026-06-03Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Towards high-throughput screening (HTS) of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production via Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of Halomonas sp. R5-57 and Pseudomonas sp. MR4-99
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Towards high-throughput screening (HTS) of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production via Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of Halomonas sp. R5-57 and Pseudomonas sp. MR4-99
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2023 (English)In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 18, no 3, article id e0282623Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

High-throughput screening (HTS) methods for characterization of microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are currently under investigated, despite the advent of such systems in related fields. In this study, phenotypic microarray by Biolog PM1 screening of Halomonas sp. R5-57 and Pseudomonas sp. MR4-99 identified 49 and 54 carbon substrates to be metabolized by these bacteria, respectively. Growth on 15 (Halomonas sp. R5-57) and 14 (Pseudomonas sp. MR4-99) carbon substrates was subsequently characterized in 96-well plates using medium with low nitrogen concentration. Bacterial cells were then harvested and analyzed for putative PHA production using two different Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) systems. The FTIR spectra obtained from both strains contained carbonyl-ester peaks indicative of PHA production. Strain specific differences in the carbonyl-ester peak wavenumber indicated that the PHA side chain configuration differed between the two strains. Confirmation of short chain length PHA (scl-PHA) accumulation in Halomonas sp. R5-57 and medium chain length PHA (mcl-PHA) in Pseudomonas sp. MR4-99 was done using Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) analysis after upscaling to 50 mL cultures supplemented with glycerol and gluconate. The strain specific PHA side chain configurations were also found in FTIR spectra of the 50 mL cultures. This supports the hypothesis that PHA was also produced in the cells cultivated in 96-well plates, and that the HTS approach is suitable for analysis of PHA production in bacteria. However, the carbonyl-ester peaks detected by FTIR are only indicative of PHA production in the small-scale cultures, and appropriate calibration and prediction models based on combining FTIR and GC-FID data needs to be developed and optimized by performing more extensive screenings and multivariate analyses.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Public Library of Science, 2023
National Category
Biochemistry Molecular Biology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-205799 (URN)10.1371/journal.pone.0282623 (DOI)000948775000017 ()36888636 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85149712157 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2016-02011
Available from: 2023-03-22 Created: 2023-03-22 Last updated: 2026-06-02Bibliographically approved
2. Revealing the phenotypic and genomic background for pha production from rapeseed-biodiesel crude glycerol using photobacterium ganghwense C2.2
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Revealing the phenotypic and genomic background for pha production from rapeseed-biodiesel crude glycerol using photobacterium ganghwense C2.2
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2022 (English)In: International Journal of Molecular Sciences, ISSN 1661-6596, E-ISSN 1422-0067, Vol. 23, no 22, article id 13754Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are promising biodegradable and biocompatible bioplastics, and extensive knowledge of the employed bacterial strain’s metabolic capabilities is necessary in choosing economically feasible production conditions. This study aimed to create an in-depth view of the utilization of Photobacterium ganghwense C2.2 for PHA production by linking a wide array of characterization methods: metabolic pathway annotation from the strain’s complete genome, high-throughput phenotypic tests, and biomass analyses through plate-based assays and flask and bioreactor cultivations. We confirmed, in PHA production conditions, urea catabolization, fatty acid degradation and synthesis, and high pH variation and osmotic stress tolerance. With urea as a nitrogen source, pure and rapeseed-biodiesel crude glycerol were analyzed comparatively as carbon sources for fermentation at 20 °C. Flask cultivations yielded 2.2 g/L and 2 g/L PHA at 120 h, respectively, with molecular weights of 428,629 g/mol and 81,515 g/mol. Bioreactor batch cultivation doubled biomass accumulation (10 g/L and 13.2 g/L) in 48 h, with a PHA productivity of 0.133 g/(L·h) and 0.05 g/(L·h). Thus, phenotypic and genomic analyses determined the successful use of Photobacterium ganghwense C2.2 for PHA production using urea and crude glycerol and 20 g/L NaCl, without pH adjustment, providing the basis for a viable fermentation process.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
MDPI, 2022
Keywords
Biolog Phenotypic Microarray, biopolymer molecular mass, bioreactor, crude glycerol, fatty acid metabolism, genomics, polyhydroxyalkanoates
National Category
Biochemistry Molecular Biology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-201464 (URN)10.3390/ijms232213754 (DOI)000887480800001 ()2-s2.0-85142628112 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2022-12-06 Created: 2022-12-06 Last updated: 2026-06-02Bibliographically approved
3. Scalable and sustainable processing of intracellular polyhydroxyalkanoates with biobased solvents
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Scalable and sustainable processing of intracellular polyhydroxyalkanoates with biobased solvents
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2023 (English)In: ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering, E-ISSN 2168-0485, Vol. 11, no 51, p. 17990-18000Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The replacement of fossil-based plastics with biobased and biodegradable alternatives has become an important research challenge in recent years, aiming to eliminate the negative environmental impact of persistent plastics in nature. In this report, design of experiments was successfully exploited to develop an efficient and sustainable method for extracting intracellular PHA from Photobacterium ganghwense C2.2 using dihydrolevoglucosenone (Cyrene) and ethanol as biobased solvents obtainable from sustainable sources. The extraction conditions were studied and optimized against the yield and molecular weight. The temperature range for the extraction was scouted by using differential scanning calorimetry, while size exclusion chromatography coupled to refractive index and multiangle light scattering detectors was used to assess the molecular weights of the extracted polymers. The examined ranges in the model were, respectively, 1.6–8.4% (w/v) of lyophilized cells content per 10 mL of solvent, 3–17 min extraction time, and temperatures from 116 to 144 °C. Time and temperature strongly affected the extraction yields and molecular weights of the obtained polymers while the concentration of bacterial biomass only effected the molecular weight. Several quadratic and interaction coefficients were significant in the well-fit partial least-squares regression models (R2 > 0.8, Q2 > 0.6) indicating that nonlinear effects and interacting parameter contributed to the optimization targets. The optimized extraction should be performed at 130 °C for 15 min with 2% loading of bacterial biomass. The predicted yield and molecular weight of the polymer matched the values obtained from the real experiment under the optimized conditions. The method setup provided similar yield and higher molecular weight in much shorter time compared to overnight Soxhlet extraction with CHCl3. The clean 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of polymers extracted from bacteria indicate that high purity materials can be obtained using an optimized extraction scheme. Additionally, the Cyrene solvent could be recycled at least five times and still performed the extraction equally well as the fresh solvent. Finally, the current method demonstrated a high potential for scalability using a HP4750 stirred filtration cell. Three different filtration conditions were tested, achieving up to 97.4% recovery at 80 °C using a 0.3 μm glass fiber membrane, with a flux of 312.5 LMH.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
American Chemical Society (ACS), 2023
National Category
Analytical Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-218282 (URN)10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c05422 (DOI)001131587500001 ()2-s2.0-85181148255 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Mistra - The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research, 2016-02011Bio4Energy
Available from: 2023-12-19 Created: 2023-12-19 Last updated: 2026-06-02Bibliographically approved
4. Sustainable, highly selective, and metal-free thermal depolymerization of poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate) to crotonic acid in recoverable ionic liquids
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Sustainable, highly selective, and metal-free thermal depolymerization of poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate) to crotonic acid in recoverable ionic liquids
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2022 (English)In: Green Chemistry, ISSN 1463-9262, E-ISSN 1463-9270, Vol. 24, no 10, p. 4130-4139Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Valorization of renewable and biodegradable biopolymers to value added chemicals and green fuels is currently considered as an important research topic aiming at reducing the dependency on fossil derived feedstocks as well as their negative consequences on the environment. In this report, we are introducing an ionic liquid (IL) mediated, sustainable, and green synthesis of crotonic acid (CA) from poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate, PHB), a biopolymer derived from microbial fermentation. In this actual case, imidazolium cation comprising ILs have been used in the synthesis, where the influence of various reaction parameters such as reaction temperature and types of ILs as well as the amount of polymer, water, and IL in the reaction mixture were examined. The conversion of PHB to CA in IL took place by a base catalyzed depolymerization with formation of crotonyl terminated polymeric entities as intermediates, a mechanism that was confirmed by NMR analysis of the reaction mixtures sampled when the reactions were carried out at various temperatures. The rate of CA formation via the IL mediated base catalyzed depolymerization increased with increasing temperature in the tested interval, and 97% yield of CA was obtained after 90 min at 140 °C. The [EMIM][AcO] IL applied as solvent and catalyst is capable of completely depolymerizing PHB to CA in 5 h at 120 °C up to a polymer loading of 40 wt%. At higher loadings the depolymerization became incomplete, which is attributed to a deactivation of the IL due to hydrogen bonding interactions with the in situ formed CA, confirmed by NMR and DSC techniques. Since the depolymerization is base catalyzed, the only tested ILs that were able to form CA were based on acetate anions, whereas the less basic or neutral [EMIM][Cl] IL was found to be inactive. Finally, more than 90% of CA as well as [EMIM][AcO] IL were recovered in high purity by solvent extraction with brine (saturated aqueous NaCl) and 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran (2-Me-THF). Most importantly, here we introduce a sustainable, metal free, and single solvent based reaction approach for selective depolymerization of PHB to industrially valuable CA in basic and recoverable ILs.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Royal Society of Chemistry, 2022
National Category
Analytical Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-195103 (URN)10.1039/D2GC00621A (DOI)000792782700001 ()2-s2.0-85131448220 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Bio4EnergyKnut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation
Available from: 2022-05-23 Created: 2022-05-23 Last updated: 2026-06-02Bibliographically approved
5. Brønsted acid ionic liquid catalyzed depolymerization of poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate) to 3-hydroxybutyric acid: highly selective and sustainable transformation in methyl isobutyl ketone and water-containing phase-separable reaction media
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Brønsted acid ionic liquid catalyzed depolymerization of poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate) to 3-hydroxybutyric acid: highly selective and sustainable transformation in methyl isobutyl ketone and water-containing phase-separable reaction media
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2024 (English)In: ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering, E-ISSN 2168-0485, Vol. 12, no 37, p. 13946-13959Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate), PHB, is a bacterial polyester in industrial demand as a biodegradable alternative to fossil-derived nondegradable plastics. Moreover, apart from being used directly as a bioplastic, valorization of PHB to its monomer building blocks and other value-added chemicals is feasible but less explored. In this study, Brønsted acid ionic liquid (BAIL) catalyzed depolymerization of PHB was investigated as a highly selective route to 3-hydroxybutyric acid, 3-HBA. The hydrolysis of PHB to 3-HBA was performed in a biphasic solvent medium composed of methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) and water, where the organic phase had dual roles as an efficient medium for dissolution of the polymer and as solvent for the monomeric products, which were enriched in this phase after cooling, with the Brønsted acid ionic liquid (BAIL) catalyst partitioned into the aqueous phase for facile recycling. The effects of reaction parameters, including the temperature, types of IL in terms of cations and anions, and the amount of water and IL, were studied to assess the yield of 3-HBA. Furthermore, protic acids such as sulfuric acid, methanesulfonic acid, and p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TsOH) were also applied for comparison as acid catalysts for the hydrolysis of PHB to 3-HBA. Among the tested catalysts, the ILs containing the p-TsO- as anion as well as p-TsOH alone were found to be highly selective in promoting hydrolysis to 3-HBA, with complete depolymerization of PHB at >90% yield of 3-HBA in 4 h at 120 °C using a BAIL with sulfobutylated 1-methylimidazolium as the cation component and p-TsO- as the anion ([ImSO3H+][p-TsO-]). Although the use of p-TsOH as the sole catalyst also yielded efficient PHB hydrolysis with high reaction rates, it had a disturbing effect on the biphasic MIBK-water system by forming a single-phase reaction mixture at high 3-HBA yields, obstructing the recoveries of the products as well as the catalyst. In contrast, the biphasic reaction mixture remained intact when using IL as catalyst, which allowed facile and efficient separation of the product from the catalyst. Both the 3-HBA and the [ImSO3H+][p-TsO-] IL were recovered in high purity, the latter after applying a solvent extraction scheme based on ethyl acetate, whereby the recoveries of 3-HBA and IL reached ≈90%. The compositions of the synthesized ILs and the progress of the hydrolysis process, as well as the purity of the recovered product, were confirmed by NMR analysis. This sustainable approach to selective hydrolytic transformation of PHB into 3-HBA using a recoverable acidic IL catalyst in a biphasic solvent media of aqueous methyl isobutyl ketone hence resulted in efficient product separation and catalyst recovery.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
American Chemical Society (ACS), 2024
Keywords
Biobased polymers, Biodegradable polymers, Biorefineries, Ionic liquids as catalysts, Polyhydroxyalkanoates, Polymer recycling, Valorization of biopolymers
National Category
Organic Chemistry Biocatalysis and Enzyme Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-229370 (URN)10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c04723 (DOI)001305380600001 ()2-s2.0-85202914294 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2016-02011Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation
Available from: 2024-09-13 Created: 2024-09-13 Last updated: 2026-06-02Bibliographically approved
6. Methanolysis–Hydrolysis Valorization of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) to 3-Hydroxybutyric Acid using a Recoverable Brønsted Acid Catalyst
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Methanolysis–Hydrolysis Valorization of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) to 3-Hydroxybutyric Acid using a Recoverable Brønsted Acid Catalyst
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Depolymerization of the biodegradable polyester poly(3-hydroxybutyrate; PHB), which can be produced by microbial conversion of organic waste, to its monomer 3-hydroxybutyric acid (3-HBA) is an important process in the recycling of PHB and materials made thereof. In this report, a highly selective acid catalyzed methanolysis of PHB was conducted and directly followed by hydrolysis of the intermediate methyl 3-hydroxybutyrate (M3HB) to 3-hydroxybutyric acid (3-HBA) under mild reaction conditions, using para-toluene sulfonic acid (p-TsOH) as an inexpensive and recoverable catalyst for both the depolymerizing-transesterification to M3HB and its subsequent hydrolysis to 3-HBA. Besides methanolysis, the p-TsOH catalyzed ethanolysis of PHB to ethyl 3-hydroxybutyrate (E3HB) was also examined. In the case of methanolysis, key reaction parameters such as the reaction temperature, amounts of PHB and catalyst, the catalyst type, and solvent composition in terms of methanol, water,and methyl isobutyl ketone were varied to study their influence on the yield of M3HB. The yield of M3HB conversion in the acid catalyzed methanolysis increased with increasing temperature and reached > 96 % when the conversion of PHB was complete after 6 h at 100 °C, with a similar yield achieved in 30 min at 130 °C. The catalyst was highly active, achieving complete conversion of PHB into M3HB within one hour at 120 °C, even with polymer loadings of up to 29 weight-% in the reaction mixture. The catalyst and the M3HB were recovered from the reaction mixture in high purity by distillation, with 93 and 87 % yield, respectively, and the recovered p-TsOH catalyst was recycled for four cycles with maintained activity. Kinetic studies confirmed that the rate of methanolysis of PHB was significantly higher than the rate of ethanolysis. Additionally, hydrolysis of M3HB to 3-HBA was conducted at 110 °C, achieving full conversion of the ester obtained from methanolysis of 29 weight-% PHB to 3-HBA in three hours. The progress of the alcoholysis and hydrolysis processes, as well as purity of the recovered reaction constituents, were confirmed by NMR analysis. The mechanism of the acid catalyzed methanolysis of PHB to M3HB was also unraveled by NMR analysis.

National Category
Polymer Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-253946 (URN)
Funder
Mistra - The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research, 2016-02011Wallenberg Foundations
Available from: 2026-06-02 Created: 2026-06-02 Last updated: 2026-06-03Bibliographically approved

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