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Kidney injury following Covid-19: a whole population approach
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Microbiology. (Anne-Marie Fors Connolly Group)ORCID iD: 0000-0002-5328-9536
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Njurskada efter Covid-19 : en helbefolkningsstudie (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Background

Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) was initially considered a respiratory disease but was soon recognised as a multi-organ disease, including the kidneys. Previous research on Covid-19-associated kidney injury has been conducted in limited cohorts, leaving questions about the impact at the population level as well as on the kidney structure. 

Overall Aim: To determine the extent of kidney injury following Covid-19, whether disease severity modified the risk, and whether novel kidney injury biomarkers could be used as more sensitive indicators of kidney injury.

Material and Methods

In Studies I-II and IV, whole-population Swedish data including 8.2 million individuals from 2020 to 2022/2025 were used. In Study III, whole-population Danish data including 4.8 million individuals from 2012 to 2022 were analysed. In Study V, data from a multicentre prospective cohort study in Sweden 2020-2021, including 77 moderate-to-severe and 141 mild Covid-19 patients, were used.

In Study I, data from the Swedish Intensive Care Register (SIR) were used as the reference to calculate the sensitivity and positive predictive values of procedure codes for intensive care (IC), mechanical ventilation (MV), extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and Covid-19 diagnosis registration in the Inpatient Register (IPR). To create a harmonised severity index based on the registry format, the World Health Organisation (WHO) Clinical Progression Scale was translated into a severity index in Study II. A SARS-CoV-2 positive test was defined as exposure, and all-cause mortality 90 days after the initial 30 days of infection was defined as the outcome. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to assess whether disease severity was associated with mortality in Covid-19 patients compared with the background population.

To assess the reliability of ICD codes for kidney injury in the whole-population register data, Study III validated ICD codes against laboratory-verified severe kidney injury. Sensitivity analysis with 95% confidence intervals and logistic regression, both adjusted and unadjusted, were performed to assess sensitivity. The impact of Covid-19 severity on risk of kidney injury was determined using the self-controlled case series (SCCS) and Cox regression method in Study IV. The SCCS method was utilised to determine the duration at risk of kidney injury, and a whole-population approach using Cox regression was applied to determine the risk of kidney injury compared to the background population. Since creatinine is a poor marker for identifying early stages of kidney injury, glomerular and tubular kidney injury biomarkers were quantified in plasma samples in Study V. Mann-Whitney U tests, Spearman’s correlations, and linear mixed models were applied to evaluate differences in kidney injury biomarkers between mild and moderate-to-severe Covid-19 patients.

Results

In Study I, the sensitivity of a code in the Swedish IPR, compared with the SIR, was 39.7% (IC), 78.2% (MV), and 100% (ECMO), respectively. Variation in data completeness was observed across healthcare regions. Through Study II, the WHO Covid-19 clinical guidelines were translated into ten categories, reflecting the increasing need for health care interventions. Higher age and comorbidity burden were associated with mortality following Covid-19. After the initial 30 days (the time to define the highest disease severity), 90-day all-cause mortality increased with disease severity. In Study III, a mismatch was observed between laboratory-verified severe kidney injury and diagnosed kidney injury, with an unadjusted sensitivity of 47.3%. Underdiagnosis was more common among men and people aged >80 years. 

In Study IV, the risk of kidney injury following Covid-19, evaluated with the incidence rate ratio, was increased up to 60 days. The risk was higher in men, increased with higher disease severity, and highest in the 51-74 age group. In Study V, we identified differences in tubular injury biomarkers between patients with moderate/severe and those with mild Covid-19, indicating that hospitalised patients were more affected up to 6 months post-infection.

Conclusions

These studies show an increased risk of kidney injury associated with Covid-19. The results highlight the importance of vaccination to prevent severe disease, as well as follow-up to detect kidney injury and to prevent deterioration. These studies also emphasise the importance of national health registers, combined with standardised definitions and reporting, for kidney injury, medical interventions, and Covid-19 disease severity.

Abstract [sv]

Bakgrund

Coronavirus sjukdom 2019 (Covid-19) orsakade en global pandemi mellan 2020–2023. I början av sjukdomens utbrott definierades Covid-19 som en luftvägssjukdom, men tidigt 2020 identifierades den som en multi-organsjukdom även omfattande njurarna. Tidigare forskning om njursjukdom kopplad till Covid-19 har utförts på mindre kohorter och ej studerat effekt på populationsnivå eller hur njurens struktur påverkas.

 

Övergripande mål: Att undersöka omfattningen av njurskador efter Covid-19, huruvida sjukdomssvårighet förändrar risken, samt om nya biomarkörer kan användas för att identifiera njurskada efter Covid-19.

 

Material och metoder

I studierna I–II och IV användes svenska registerdata för hela befolkningen 2020–2022/2025. I studie III analyserades danska registerdata för hela befolkningen från 2012 till 2022. I studie V användes data från en prospektiv multicenterstudie med 77 patienter med måttlig till svår Covid-19 och 141 patienter med mild Covid-19 i Sverige, 2020–2021.

I Studie I användes data från Svenska Intensivvårdsregistret (SIR) för att beräkna känslighet och ”positivt prediktivt värde” jämfört med Patientregistret (IPR) för åtgärdskoder till intensivvård (IV), mekanisk ventilation (MV), extrakorporeal membranoxygenering (ECMO) och Covid-19. 

I Studie II skapades ett sjukdomssvårighetsindex för Covid-19 anpassat för registerdata genom att tolka Världshälsoorganisationens (WHO) Clinical Progression Scale. Exponering definierades som ett positivt test för SARS-CoV-2. Det nya sjukdomssvårighetsindexet kalibrerades och validerades med överlevnadsanalys i jämförelse med bakgrundsbefolkningen.

För att undersöka tillförlitligheten hos ICD-koder för njurskador i hela befolkningen genomfördes Studie III, för att validera ICD-koder mot laboratorieverifierad allvarlig njurskada. Känslighetsanalys med 95% konfidensintervall och logistisk regression, justerad och ojusterad, utfördes för att bestämma känsligheten.

I studie IV användes en självkontrollerad fallstudie (SCCS) och Cox-regression för att analysera huruvida sjukdomssvårighet hos en patient med Covid-19 påverkar dennes risk för njurskada.

Eftersom kreatinin har låg känslighet för att identifiera tidiga stadier av njurskada och kan påverkas vid infektioner, analyserades glomerulära och tubulära njurskademarkörer i plasma i Studie V. Mann-Whitney U-tester, Spearmans korrelationer och mixade linjära modeller användes för att utvärdera skillnader i njurskademarkörer mellan patienter med måttlig till svår och mild Covid-19.

Resultat 

Studie I visade en högre känslighet i SIR jämfört med IPR. Känsligheten för en kod i svenska IPR jämfört med SIR var 39,7% (IV), 78,2% (MV) och 100% (ECMO), respektive. Variation i rapporteringen observerades mellan regioner. I Studie II översattes WHO:s Covid 19-kliniska riktlinjer till tio kategorier som speglar det ökande behovet av vårdinsatser. Högre ålder och högre sjukdomsbörda var kopplade till dödlighet efter Covid-19. Vi kunde även visa en tydlig koppling mellan sjukdomssvårighet och risk för dödsfall, oavsett orsak, under de 90 dagar som följer de 30 första dagarna efter infektionen.

 

I studie III observerades en missmatchning mellan de som hade laboratorieverifierad allvarlig njurskada registrerad och de som hade fått diagnos för njurskada (47,3% känslighet). Underdiagnostisering var vanligare bland män och personer över 80 år. Studie IV påvisade en förhöjd risk för njurskada upp till 60 dagar efter Covid-19. Risken var högre för män, ökade med sjukdomens svårighetsgrad och var som högst i åldrarna 51–74 år. I Studie V identifierades skillnader i biomarkörer för tubulär och glomerulär njurskada mellan patienter med måttlig/allvarlig och mild Covid-19, vilket tyder på att de sjukhusvårdade patienterna var fortsatt påverkade i sin njurfunktion upp till sex månader.

 

Slutsatser

Avhandlingens studier visar på en koppling mellan Covid-19 och ökad risk för njurskada. Resultaten visar att vaccination är en viktig del i att motverka allvarlig Covid-19, samt att klinisk uppföljning är en viktig del i att upptäcka njurskada och förhindra vidare njurskada. Studierna visar även vikten av nationella patientregister och att det finns fördelar med att vidare standardisera definitioner och rapportering kopplat till njurskada, medicinska åtgärder och Covid-19-sjukdomssvårighet.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2026. , p. 126
Series
Umeå University medical dissertations, ISSN 0346-6612 ; 2437
Keywords [en]
Covid-19, acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, renal insufficiency, epidemiology, disease severity, critical care, biomarkers
Keywords [sv]
Covid-19, akut njurskada, kronisk njursjukdom, njursvikt, epidemiologi, sjukdomssvårighet, intensivvård, biomarkörer
National Category
Clinical Medicine Infectious Medicine Nephrology
Research subject
Infectious Diseases; Internal Medicine; Epidemiology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-258024ISBN: 978-91-6850-123-9 (print)ISBN: 978-91-6850-124-6 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-258024DiVA, id: diva2:2094971
Public defence
2026-09-18, Bergasalen, Norrlands universitetssjukhus, Södra Entrén, Byggnad Q, Plan 0, 907 37 Umeå, Umeå, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Cover art by Ellen Oweling

Available from: 2026-08-28 Created: 2026-08-24 Last updated: 2026-08-26Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. External review of procedure codes for intensive care, mechanical ventilation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for critically ill COVID-19 patients in the Swedish inpatient register: a nationwide observational cohort study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>External review of procedure codes for intensive care, mechanical ventilation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for critically ill COVID-19 patients in the Swedish inpatient register: a nationwide observational cohort study
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2025 (English)In: European Journal of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, E-ISSN 2767-7206, Vol. 4, no 2, article id e0071Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BACKGROUND: The quality of registry data is important for epidemiological research. The Swedish inpatient registry (IPR) is a national database with mandatory registration of all hospitalisations since 1987, and since 2007, the medical procedure codes which can be used for grading severity of infectious diseases. However, the completeness of procedure code registration has rarely been studied.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the quality and completeness of procedure codes for ICU admission, mechanical ventilation and extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in the Swedish IPR utilising the Swedish Intensive Care Registry (SIR) as the gold standard. DESIGN A Swedish nationwide observational study.

SETTING: Covid-19 patients in Sweden who required intensive care in Sweden between March 2020 and August 2022. PATIENTS Covid-19 patients with a laboratory-verified SARS-CoV-2 infection who required ICU admission (n=8992), mechanical ventilation (n=5262) or ECMO (n=29).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The sensitivity and/or positive predictive values of procedure code registration for ICU, mechanical ventilation, ECMO and Covid-19 diagnosis code registration in the IPR were evaluated using SIR as the reference. Factors associated with low reporting were explored and the dates of ICU admission registration compared between IPR and SIR.

RESULTS: For Covid-19 patients registered in SIR as needing intensive care, mechanical ventilation or ECMO, the completeness of procedure codes in the IPR was 39.7, 78.2 and 100%, respectively. Of the 39.7% with an ICU code in the IPR, the ICU date in the IPR corresponding to the actual ICU admission date was 52.3%. The completeness of ICU registration in the IPR varied from 0.6 to 96.9% between healthcare regions

CONCLUSIONS: Procedure codes for intensive care in the Swedish IPR showed low sensitivity and varied greatly between healthcare regions. This negatively influences their usability for epidemiological research and calls for updated guidelines on coding.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Wolters Kluwer, 2025
National Category
Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-238453 (URN)10.1097/EA9.0000000000000071 (DOI)40206340 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105001870869 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Region Västerbotten, RV-982300Region Västerbotten, RV-996166Region Västerbotten, RV-967545Swedish Research Council, 2021–06536The Kempe Foundations, SMK21–0014Swedish Heart Lung Foundation, 20220179
Available from: 2025-05-06 Created: 2025-05-06 Last updated: 2026-08-24Bibliographically approved
2. Adaptation of the WHO COVID-19 clinical progression scale for registry-based data: a whole-population study in Sweden
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Adaptation of the WHO COVID-19 clinical progression scale for registry-based data: a whole-population study in Sweden
Show others...
2025 (English)In: Clinical Epidemiology, E-ISSN 1179-1349, Vol. 17, p. 663-679Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Purpose: COVID-19 has been extensively researched; however, the lack of standardized COVID-19 severity categorization in register-based research complicates comparison of studies. The WHO COVID-19 Clinical Progression Scale is a standardized disease severity tool for clinical data, though not adapted to data available in health registries. We aimed to develop and validate such a novel categorization with international applicability.

Methods: The WHO Clinical Progression Scale was translated to a severity index utilizing ICD-and procedure-codes from outpatient, inpatient, intensive care, and mortality registries using the adult Swedish population and SARS-CoV-2 positive-test data (January 2020 – July 2022). Cox proportional hazards were applied to determine whether increasing severity correlates with mortality in COVID-19 patients compared to the population.

Results: The WHO-Scale was translated to ten categories reflecting the increasing need for advanced care, encompassing 8,245,474 individuals including 1,981,946 SARS-CoV-2 infections. Fatal COVID-19 cases were older with more comorbidities. Those receiving mechanical ventilation and ECMO were younger with fewer comorbidities. Among survivors beyond 30 days, 90-day all-cause mortality increased with severity using category zero (no laboratory-verified SARS-CoV-2) as reference. Mortality was lowest for patients without health care adjusted for age, sex, comorbidities and socio-economic variables (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.13–1.22). Those hospitalized >5 days had higher mortality (aHR 5.83, 5.5–6.17). Those requiring ECMO/ ECLS had the highest mortality (aHR 593.54, 317.77–1108.65).

Conclusion: The novel COVID-19 severity index associated with all-cause 90-day mortality and aligned with previous literature. This index will enable comparative studies of COVID-19, which is important for public health policies and development of clinical guidelines. This is an innovative epidemiologic tool with potential applicability in all countries with centralised health registers. The index also has the potential to be used for other infectious diseases and in real-time data for modelling predictions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Dove Medical Press, 2025
Keywords
COVID-19, disease severity index, epidemiology, infectious diseases, standardization, whole-population
National Category
Epidemiology Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-242448 (URN)10.2147/CLEP.S525030 (DOI)001532450400001 ()40686692 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105011496271 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research Council, 2021-06536Region Västerbotten, RV-1006715Region Västerbotten, RV-982300Region Västerbotten, RV-996166Region Västerbotten, RV-1010337Swedish Heart Lung Foundation, 20220179The Kempe Foundations, SMK21-0014
Available from: 2025-07-31 Created: 2025-07-31 Last updated: 2026-08-24Bibliographically approved
3. Sensitivity of diagnosis codes for capturing individuals with laboratory-verified kidney injury: a Danish whole-population validation study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Sensitivity of diagnosis codes for capturing individuals with laboratory-verified kidney injury: a Danish whole-population validation study
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(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Clinical Medicine
Research subject
Internal Medicine; Epidemiology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-258022 (URN)
Available from: 2026-08-24 Created: 2026-08-24 Last updated: 2026-08-25Bibliographically approved
4. Kidney Injury Post COVID-19:: A nationwide Swedish register study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Kidney Injury Post COVID-19:: A nationwide Swedish register study
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Clinical Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-258023 (URN)
Available from: 2026-08-24 Created: 2026-08-24 Last updated: 2026-08-25Bibliographically approved
5. Longitudinal assessment of glomerular and tubular kidney function after COVID-19: a prospective cohort study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Longitudinal assessment of glomerular and tubular kidney function after COVID-19: a prospective cohort study
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2026 (English)In: Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation, ISSN 0036-5513, E-ISSN 1502-7686Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

Background: COVID-19 is a multi-organ disease affecting the kidneys, but the extent of persistent kidney injury and the utility of novel biomarkers remain unclear. We investigated patients with COVID-19 regarding initial impairment and recovery of glomerular and tubular function during six months. 

Methods: We conducted a prospective cohort study comprising 77 hospitalized and 141 non-hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Sweden. Plasma samples collected during the acute phase and at three- and six-month follow-up were analyzed for glomerular markers creatinine and cystatin C to estimate glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Tubular markers included kidney injury molecule-1, osteoactivin, trefoil factor 3, and vascular endothelial growth factor-A.

Results: Hospitalized versus non-hospitalized patients demonstrated lower eGFRcystatin C across time-points, while eGFRcreatinine was less specific. Kidney injury molecule-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor-A were persistently higher in hospitalized patients. Osteoactivin was lower at the acute phase and higher at three- and six-months follow-up in hospitalized patients. Recovery from the acute phase to six months was observed in both groups, although the biomarker levels were consistently worse for hospitalized patients.  

Conclusion: Glomerular and tubular kidney functions remained more impaired in hospitalized COVID-19 patients compared to non-hospitalized for six months. We recommend eGFRcystatin C for evaluation of glomerular function during COVID-19. The tubular injury markers kidney injury molecule-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor-A were markedly elevated in hospitalized patients, consistent with more sustained interstitial inflammation. This finding suggests that these patients may require closer clinical monitoring. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2026
Keywords
Biomarkers, COVID-19, Glomerular Filtration Rate, Renal insufficiency, Kidney Injury Molecule-1, human, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-A
National Category
Clinical Medicine
Research subject
Infectious Diseases; Clinical Chemistry; Internal Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-258020 (URN)10.1080/00365513.2026.2724491 (DOI)
Funder
Swedish Research Council, DNR 2020-06235Region VästerbottenUmeå UniversityKnut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, VC-2020-0015
Available from: 2026-08-24 Created: 2026-08-24 Last updated: 2026-09-04

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