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Purpose: Sustainable development (SD) has been an internationally supported concept since the Brundtland report defined it as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED,1987). Since then, many definitions of SD have been explored (e.g. Kates et al 2005; Redclift, 2005) and a range of theoretical models has been applied. The three pillars model of sustainable development, balancing environmental, economic and social aspects of sustainable development, has been widely used in practice but more recently critiqued as a ‘weak model’ of sustainability (Dresner, 2002). Alternative models include strong sustainability, in which natural capital cannot always be exchanged for financial or other forms (Dietz and Neumayer, 2007), or wider framings such as “action into the meaning, making and maintenance of Life in the long term” (Ferraro et al., 2010). In this paper we ask what these theoretical models could bring to the concept and practice of golf.

Method: Three theoretical models for sustainable development were applied to assess understandings of golf and practices of golf: ‘three pillars’, ‘strong sustainability’ and ‘integration of humans and nature’. Firstly, a literature search for peer reviewed literature on ‘golf and sustainable development / sustainability’ was undertaken using JSTOR and Web of Science. Secondly, a review of websites of major organizations and significant golf sector reports (including R&A, USGA, PGA, GEO, WGF) captured grey literature and practice recommendations. Thirdly, we engaged with the golf sector through attending and speaking at conferences, discussions with key informants and working with practitioners throughout a three year period. Finally, values and indicators of the theoretical models were mapped across ways in which golf was framed and practised and some practical recommendations derived.

Analysis/Results: The peer reviewed literature identified focused primarily on golf and economic development or environmental management. Whilst the ‘three pillars’ model was explicitly mentioned in some golf sector mainstream sites, sustainability was often confined to golf course management. Some cases maintained a holistic focus on sustainable development, others embedded sustainability within areas of practice. There was little evidence of ‘strong sustainability’ in discourse or practice, and regional differences. Some excellent projects going beyond environmental management were identified. Engagement within the golf sector demonstrated wider framings of sustainability, with willingness to explore access, participation and management norms for financial, reputational and value based reasons.

Conclusions: Advances in theoretical models of sustainable development have not yet had a significant impact on concepts and practices in the golf sector, although there are some encouraging examples such as supporting local deprived communities, enhancing access, diversification and event carbon accounting and procurement. Golf could benefit from a wider conceptual analysis, potentially leading to an improved role of golf in biodiversity conservation, resource (including carbon) management, physical activity and health, community development and economic outcomes. Practices to promote include local community support, multi-functionality and diversity of golf courses, access programs and rigorous sustainable golf course design and management across all world regions.Keywords: Sustainability, Sustainable Development, Theory and practiceReferencesDietz, S. & Neumayer, E. 2007. Weak and strong sustainability in the SEEA: Concepts and measurement. Ecological Economics, 61, 617-626.Dresner, S. 2002. The principles of sustainability, London, Earthscan Ltd.Ferraro, E., White, R. M., Cox, E., Bebbington, K. J. & Wilson, S. 2010. Craft and sustainable development: reflections on Scottish craft and pathways to sustainability. Craft + Design Enquiry, 3, 1-26.Kates W. Robert , Thomas M. Parris & Anthony A. Leiserowitz, 2005. What is Sustainable Development? Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 47:3, 8-21, DOI: 10.1080/00139157.2005.10524444Redclift, M. 2005. Sustainable development (1987-2005): An oxymoron comes of age. Sustainable Development, 13, 212-227.