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How difficult can it be?: developing a self-management instrument and describing self-management difficulties of older adults living with long-term health conditions
Umeå University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Nursing.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9464-7264
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Hur svårt kan det vara? : att utveckla ett egenvårdsinstrument och beskriva egenvårdssvårigheter hos äldre med långvariga sjukdomar (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Background

Everyday management of long-term health conditions is done by individuals, with support from their families. Self-management is, therefore, an essential component in disease management. Compared to the general population, older adults are more likely to have long-term health conditions. In addition, many older adults have complex health needs due to factors related to the ageing process, changing life circumstances and/or multi-morbidity. This can complicate both the day-to-day management of their conditions and their contacts with healthcare providers. Despite this, there is a paucity in the research describing self-management difficulties experienced by older adults and the strategies they use to navigate the healthcare system and interact with healthcare providers. One reason for the lack of self-management research is the lack of comprehensive, generic self-management measures. This limits the ability to evaluate self-management interventions designed for older adults and to compare results across studies. 

Aim

This thesis aimed to develop and evaluate a novel self-management instrument, describe the self-management difficulties older adults with long-term conditions experience, and the strategies they use to self-manage healthcare relationships and navigation.

Methods

Using both qualitative and quantitative paradigms, five studies report findings based on three datasets. The first data collection (data set 1) was via an English cross-sectional questionnaire (n=1055) distributed as an online, open survey that recruited individuals aged 18 years or older with one or more long-term health conditions. The second data collection (data set 2) used a population-based Swedish cross-sectional questionnaire (n=516) completed by 70-year-olds with one or more long-term health conditions living in a municipality in northern Sweden. The third data collection (data set 3) used qualitative interviews (n=21) with a selected subsample from data set 2. Item selection, scaling and validation of the English and Swedish versions of the Patient Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions PRISM-CC (Studies I and II), were conducted using Confirmatory Factor Analysis and item response theory models, hypothesis testing, translatability and assessment of face and content validity. Intra-class correlation coefficient and Bland-Altman plots were used to assess test-retest reliability (Study II). Differential item functioning (DIF) and differential test functioning (DTF) were assessed using iterative hybrid ordinal logistic regression (Study III), and the patterns of self-management ease and difficulty among older adults were described using descriptive statistics and logistic regression (Study IV). Thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative interview data (Study V).  

Results

The final, seven-domain, Swedish and English versions of the PRISM-CC consist of 36 items with four to eight items per domain (Study I-II). Face and content validity were deemed high for six of the seven domains (Study I). Both versions showed good structural validity and internal consistency (Study I-II). Test-retest reliability of the Swedish version was good for six of the seven domains (Study II). No meaningful DIF or DTF was found for any of the variables assessed (age, gender, level of education, number of conditions or between languages) (Study III). Analysis of the population-based questionnaire revealed that few Swedish adults reported self-management difficulties (Study IV). Some individuals, however, rated their self-management difficulties as high, and these individuals often had difficulties in all self-management domains. The Internal domain emerged as potentially very important for older adults’ self-management. There was also a strong association between self-management difficulty and having self-reported symptoms of depression or poor self-perceived health status. Interviews highlighted how older adults used a range of strategies to navigate the healthcare system and interact with healthcare providers to receive the care they needed (Study V). When preparing to seek care, they tried to understand their symptoms, legitimize their need to seek care and locate an entry point to the healthcare system. During healthcare interactions, they tried to be attentive, show accountability and make themselves heard. After each interaction, they pieced together information from different sources to decide on how to proceed.

Conclusions

The results show that most 70-year-olds in Sweden with long-term health conditions find self-management easy; therefore, healthcare resources should be focused on finding and supporting those who are having difficulty. The PRISM-CC shows good psychometric properties and has the potential to be used to identify individuals with higher needs for self-management support, and in which areas they are having difficulty. However, further research, in a clinical setting is now warranted and recommended. Finally, older adults describe using a range of strategies in self-managing within the healthcare system, which could be used to inform and improve how older adults access health systems and how health providers structure their interactions with older adults.

Abstract [sv]

Bakgrund

Egenvård har visat sig viktigt för att kunna må bra när man lever med långvariga sjukdomar eftersom den största delen av sjukdomshanteringen sker i hemmet. Det är vanligt att äldre lever med en eller flera långvariga sjukdomar och många kan ha komplexa behov på grund av faktorer relaterade till åldrandet, förändrad livssituation och samsjuklighet. Det kan försvåra sjukdomshanteringen och komplicera kontakten med vårdgivare. Trots detta saknas forskning som beskriver vilka svårigheter äldre upplever med att hantera sina sjukdomar och vilka strategier de använder i kontakten med sjukvården. En anledning till bristen på forskning kan vara att det saknas bra mätinstrument för egenvård. Det gör det svårt att mäta vilka svårigheter med egenvård som äldre upplever och utforma insatser från vården som riktas särskilt mot äldre med långvariga sjukdomar.

Syfte med avhandlingen 

Det övergripande syftet med den här avhandlingen var att utveckla och utvärdera ett nytt egenvårdsinstrument, beskriva de egenvårdssvårigheter som äldre med långvariga sjukdomar upplever, samt de strategier de använder för att navigera och interagera med vårdgivare. 

Metoder

Både kvalitativa och kvantitativa metoder användes för att svara på syftet. Avhandlingen innehåller fem studier som bygger på tre datainsamlingar. Datainsamling 1 (1055 personer) var en engelsk enkätstudie distribuerad online som riktade sig till personer över 18 år med en eller flera långvariga sjukdomar. Datainsamling 2 (516 personer) var en svensk enkätstudie som riktade sig 70-åringar med en eller flera långvariga sjukdomar boende i en kommun i norra Sverige. Datainsamling 3 (21 personer) bestod av intervjuer av ett urval av dom personer som deltagit i datainsamling 2. För att beskriva utvecklingen och utvärdera dom engelska och svenska versionerna av the Patient Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions (PRISM-CC) (studie I-II) användes psykometriska metoder (Confirmatory Factor Analysis och item response theory). Det gjordes även en bedömning av hur väl frågorna gick att översätta och olika hypotesprövningar baserat på kända samband med faktorer som utbildningsnivå, upplevd hälsa och antal sjukdomar. Frågorna diskuterades även i forskningsteamet angående exempelvis relevans och tydlighet (face-and content validity). Två olika analyser gjordes för att testa att PRISM-CC mäter samma sak över tid (intra-class correlation coefficient och Bland-Altman diagram) (studie II). För att bedöma om instrumentet kan användas för att jämföra resultat mellan olika grupper och att den engelska och svenska versionen förstås på samma sätt (studie III) användes iterative hybrid ordinal logistic regression. För att beskriva egenvårdssvårigheter hos äldre med långvariga sjukdomar och undersöka samband mellan egenvårdssvårigheter och olika faktorer (studie IV) användes deskriptiv statistik och logistisk regression. Tematisk analys användes för att analysera intervjuerna (studie V).   

Resultat

Den svenska och engelska versionen av PRISM-CC består av 36 frågor med fyra till åtta frågor per egenvårdsområde (studie I-II). För sex av dom sju egenvårdsområdena bedömdes face- and content validity som god (studie 1). Båda versionerna av PRISM-CC uppvisade god validitet och reliabilitet (studie I-II). Sex av dom sju domänerna visade en god förmåga att mäta samma sak över tid (studie II). Ingen betydande skillnad mellan grupperna sågs för ålder, kön, utbildningsnivå, antal tillstånd eller mellan språk (studie III). 

Resultaten visade också att dom flesta 70-åringar i den här populationen inte hade svårigheter med egenvård (studie IV). Vissa individer upplevde dock stora egenvårdssvårigheter inom alla områden som ingår i PRISM-CC. Ett egenvårdsområde som handlar om förmågan att förebygga och hantera stress, negativa känslor och oro, visade sig vara potentiellt mycket viktig för äldres förmåga till egenvård, och det fanns också ett starkt samband mellan att ha svårigheter med egenvård och symtom på depression eller att man upplevde sig ha dålig hälsa. Intervjuerna visade hur deltagarna använde olika strategier för att navigera och interagera med vårdgivare för att få den vård de upplevde att dom behövde (studie V). När de förberedde sig för att söka vård försökte de förstå sina symtom, legitimera sitt behov av vård och hitta en lämplig ingång till hälso- och sjukvårdssystemet. Under interaktioner med vårdgivare beskrev de strategier för att försöka anpassa sig till vårdkontexten, visa sig ansvarstagande och göra sin röst hörd, och efter varje interaktion sammanställde de information från olika källor för att fatta ett beslut om hur de skulle gå vidare.

Slutsatser

Resultaten visar att de flesta 70-åringar med långvariga sjukdomar i den här avhandlingen tycker att det är lätt med egenvård. Därför bör vården fokusera på att hitta och stödja de äldre som har egenvårdssvårigheter. PRISM-CC visar goda psykometriska egenskaper och har potential att användas för att identifiera personer med större behov av egenvårdsstöd och för att kartlägga inom vilka egenvårdsområden de har svårigheter. Det behövs dock ytterligare forskning där man använder instrumentet i klinik. Slutligen beskriver äldre vuxna att de använder en rad olika strategier för att navigera och interagera med vårdgivare, vilket bör beaktas när man utvecklar kontaktmetoder eller rutiner för interaktion.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Umeå: Umeå University, 2025. , p. 75
Series
Umeå University medical dissertations, ISSN 0346-6612 ; 2379
Keywords [en]
Aged, chronic disease, differential item functioning, differential test functioning, healthcare navigation, long-term health conditions, measurement invariance, multi-morbidity, older adults, patient-reported outcome measurement, primary health care, psychometrics, self-care, self-management, thematic analysis
Keywords [sv]
Åldrande, kronisk sjukdom, differential item functioning, differential test functioning, sjukvårdsnavigering, långvariga sjukdomar, measurement invariance, multimorbiditet, äldre, patientrapporterade utfallsmått, primärvård, psykometri, egenvård, tematisk analys
National Category
Nursing
Research subject
Caring Sciences
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-244769ISBN: 978-91-8070-770-1 (print)ISBN: 978-91-8070-771-8 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:umu-244769DiVA, id: diva2:2001955
Public defence
2025-10-24, Aula Biologica, Biologihuset, Johan Bures väg 12, Umeå, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-10-03 Created: 2025-09-29 Last updated: 2025-10-01Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Item selection, scaling and construct validation of the Patient-Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions (PRISM-CC) measurement tool in adults
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Item selection, scaling and construct validation of the Patient-Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions (PRISM-CC) measurement tool in adults
Show others...
2022 (English)In: Quality of Life Research, ISSN 0962-9343, E-ISSN 1573-2649, Vol. 31, no 9, p. 2867-2880Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Purpose: To select and scale items for the seven domains of the Patient-Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions (PRISM-CC) and assess its construct validity.

Methods: Using an online survey, data on 100 potential items, and other variables for assessing construct validity, were collected from 1055 adults with one or more chronic health conditions. Based on a validated conceptual model, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response models (IRT) were used to select and scale potential items and assess the internal consistency and structural validity of the PRISM-CC. To further assess construct validity, hypothesis testing of known relationships was conducted using structural equation models.

Results: Of 100 potential items, 36 (4–8 per domain) were selected, providing excellent fit to our hypothesized correlated factors model and demonstrating internal consistency and structural validity of the PRISM-CC. Hypothesized associations between PRISM-CC domains and other measures and variables were confirmed, providing further evidence of construct validity.

Conclusion: The PRISM-CC overcomes limitations of assessment tools currently available to measure patient self-management of chronic health conditions. This study provides strong evidence for the internal consistency and construct validity of the PRISM-CC as an instrument to assess patient-reported difficulty in self-managing different aspects of daily life with one or more chronic conditions. Further research is needed to assess its measurement equivalence across patient attributes, ability to measure clinically important change, and utility to inform self-management support.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2022
Keywords
Chronic disease, Multimorbidity, Patient outcome assessment, Patient-centered care, Psychometrics, Self-management
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-203238 (URN)10.1007/s11136-022-03165-4 (DOI)000817030100001 ()35759127 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85132900748 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2023-01-17 Created: 2023-01-17 Last updated: 2025-09-29Bibliographically approved
2. Structural validity and test-retest reliability of the patient reported inventory of self-management of chronic conditions (PRISM-CC) in a Swedish population of seventy-year-olds with long-term health conditions
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Structural validity and test-retest reliability of the patient reported inventory of self-management of chronic conditions (PRISM-CC) in a Swedish population of seventy-year-olds with long-term health conditions
Show others...
2025 (English)In: Journal of Patient-Reported Outcomes, E-ISSN 2509-8020, Vol. 9, no 1, article id 59Article in journal (Other academic) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Self-management is internationally recognized as important to maintain independence, quality of life and to minimize the risk of poor health outcomes, especially among persons with multi-morbidity. Self-management can be especially challenging for older adults, who have higher rates of multi-morbidity and experience diverse impacts of long-term health conditions on everyday life. Good measures of self-management are currently lacking. The Patient Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions (PRISM-CC) is a new, generic, multidimensional measure of self-perceived ease or difficulty with self-management, that overcomes many of the limitations of existing measures.

Objectives: To test the structural validity and test-retest reliability of the Swedish version of the PRISM-CC among seventy-year-olds with long-term health conditions.

Methods: Translation of PRISM-CC items into Swedish followed the Patient-Reported Outcome (PRO) Consortium process. Survey data (n = 516 Swedish seventy-year-olds with ≥1 long-term health condition) was used to assess structural validity of the 36-item PRISM-CC using multidimensional item response theory (IRT) models. Test-retest reliability was assessed on a subsample of 58 individuals using intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) and Bland-Altman Plots.

Results: The Swedish PRISM-CC demonstrated good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha >0.8 for all domains, and good fit to a graded response IRT model (RMSEA 0.034, SRMSR 0.050, CFI 0.952 and TLI 0.945). All 36 items had standardized loadings >0.7. ICC showed moderate to good test-retest reliability for all seven domains. The Bland-Altman plots showed minimal bias and good test-retest agreement for all domains.

Conclusion: The Swedish PRISM-CC showed good structural validity and test-retest reliability in this sample of relatively healthy seventy-year-olds with long-term health condition(s). Further validation in a population with more severe health issues is needed.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2025
Keywords
Patient reported outcome measurement, Self-management, Psychometrics, Long-term health conditions, Multimorbidity, Older adults
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-239413 (URN)10.1186/s41687-025-00892-3 (DOI)40434615 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105006856323 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2025-06-02 Created: 2025-06-02 Last updated: 2025-09-29Bibliographically approved
3. The patient reported inventory of self-management of chronic conditions ((PRISM-CC): testing for bias across patient characteristics and languages
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The patient reported inventory of self-management of chronic conditions ((PRISM-CC): testing for bias across patient characteristics and languages
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Keywords
Chronic Disease, Differential Item Functioning, Differential Test Functioning, Measurement invariance, Patient Reported Outcome Measure, Self-management
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-244764 (URN)
Available from: 2025-09-29 Created: 2025-09-29 Last updated: 2025-09-29Bibliographically approved
4. Self-management difficulties in Swedish older adults and associations with sociodemographic factors, number of conditions, depression and health status
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Self-management difficulties in Swedish older adults and associations with sociodemographic factors, number of conditions, depression and health status
Show others...
2025 (English)In: Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care, ISSN 0281-3432, E-ISSN 1502-7724Article in journal (Other academic) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

Objective: This study describes patterns of self-management ease and difficulty among older adults with long-term health conditions and the associations with gender, level of education, number of conditions, depression and/or health status.

Materials and methods: Cross-sectional data were collected between 2021–2022 in a municipality in northern Sweden. The survey included demographic and health-related questions. To assess self-management ease or difficulty and symptoms of depression, the Patient Reported Inventory of Self-Management of Chronic Conditions (PRISM-CC) and the Geriatric Depression Scale were used. 516 older adults between 72–73 years of age with long-term health conditions were included. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to describe patterns of self-management ease and difficulty and to examine which factors were associated with self-management difficulty.

Results: Most older adults did not experience self-management difficulty. There were, however, differences between the seven PRISM-CC domains. The Internal domain (managing negative emotions and stress) had the highest percentage (25.39%) of older adults with self-management difficulty. In all domains, there was also a subgroup of individuals (n = 26) that had noticeably lower PRISM-CC scores (more difficulty). A strong association between having depressive symptoms or having poor health status and self-management difficulty was found.

Conclusion: This study highlights the need for regular mental health screenings and individualized self-management support for older adults. Future research should explore intervention strategies that integrate mental health support into self-management programs for individuals with long-term health conditions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Taylor & Francis, 2025
Keywords
Self-management, self-care, aged, chronic disease, PRISM-CC, primary health care, multimorbidity
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-239520 (URN)10.1080/02813432.2025.2511070 (DOI)001501192500001 ()40452269 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105007440985 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Umeå University
Available from: 2025-06-03 Created: 2025-06-03 Last updated: 2025-09-29
5. Strategies used by older adults to self-manage within the healthcare system: a qualitative study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Strategies used by older adults to self-manage within the healthcare system: a qualitative study
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-244766 (URN)
Available from: 2025-09-29 Created: 2025-09-29 Last updated: 2025-09-29Bibliographically approved

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